The Evolution of Glazing Technologies in the Ancient Near East&#39;, in A. Shortland (ed), 2001, The Social Context of Technological Change. Egypt and The Near East, 1650-1550 BC, 239-254.

Sarah Paynter

Ancient societies and states used rare and skilled materials and products, placing them in highly valuable positions. Glass, which is thought to have been first produced in Ancient Mesopotamia, was highly prized and held in important positions in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Anatolia due to its d ifficulty i n p roduction a nd r arity. I n t he i nitial s tages, g lass e merged in v arious p roduct models such as glass beads, glass bowls, glass vases, and glass bottles. Although studies have shown that the use of glass was widespread throughout Ancient Mesopotamian society, it was understood that the products with high glass content were mainly used by the high-class people. In Ancient Egyptian society, glass was considered a product for people of high class. In the civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, the state monopolized the production activities, export and import of glass by the dynasty. Glass was also exchanged as gifts between states. When we look at the ancient Anatolian geography, it is understood that glass production started i n a later period compared t o Ancient Mesopotamia a nd Ancient Egypt, and i ts role i n society is not fully known.

We present a detailed description of the layered structure developing in the walls of Egyptian Late Bronze Age glass-making vessels, and in similar vessels successfully replicated in laboratory experiments. The analyses show that this layered discolouration and change in ceramic composition is due to the interaction of the glass batch with the vessel during firing. The formation of this visually striking and easy to recognise pattern is due to the chloride content of primary glass batches and does not occur in vessels used to re-melt existing glass. Thus, we argue that these discolourations can be used as a reliable and easy field guide to identify glassmaking waste among Late Bronze Age ceramic assemblages, hopefully increasing the currently very small number of identified LBA glassmaking workshops.

The author discusses long term-trends in glass production during the 1st millennium CE. The systematic application of scientific methods on archaeological finds demonstrates the complexity of glass production and the trade networks in glass products. Due to the limited availability of natron nearly all glass originated from Egypt and Syria-Palestine from where raw glass was distributed to secondary workshops across Eu-rope and the Near East. This mode of production remained mostly constant during Antiquity and the early Middle Ages but a long-term decline in the availability of natron led to the restructuring of production from the 9th century onwards. Der Autor bespricht Langzeittrends der Glasherstellung im 1. Jahrtausend n. Chr. Die systematische Anwendung naturwis-senschaftlicher Methoden auf archäologische Funde wird be-nutzt um die Komplexität der Produktionsketten und Han-delsnetzwerke von Glasobjekten aufzuzeigen. Wegen der be-schränkten Verfügbarkeit von Natron wird sämtliches Roh-glas aus Ägypten und der Levante in europäische Glasverar-beitungsplätze gebracht. Dieses Netzwerk bleibt während der Antike und dem Frühen Mittelalter konstant, wird aber seit dem 9. Jahrhundert strukturell anders ausgerichtet.

Chapter13 The Evolution of Glazing Technologiesin the AncientNear Eastand Egypt SnrnhPaynterandMichaelTite In tlle ancientNear EasLa mnte oi glassymatcrialswere produced eachmakjnt u se of the sameglass formjng proc€ssinvolving firint alkalis, silica ancl coloumnis toSether.Thc rcsulting prodrcts also have a similar appearance(lusrre and colorr). These materials includedi glazed stones and faience, which were produced ftom the 5th millennium B.C.in both Mesopotamiaand Egyprj glass, which was produced tuom around 1500 B.C. in both Mesopotamiaand lgypt, and glazed clay objects,which were produced from around 1s00B.C.burontyin Mesopotamia. This paper describes how the examination of artefacts, and experimentalreplicaiion,have becn used to reconstructthe processesinvolved in the production of thesediffercnt glassymatedals.This infomarion was used ro addressthe following questions: 1. \ 41yw€regtzed clayobjectsnot produ.eduntil -1500B.C.? 2. Is it silnificantthat glazedclayobjectsarefirst Froducedat ihe samerimeasgIDSS vessels aretirst producedin Mcsopotamia? 3. Why arc alkaliglazedclayobje.tsnot producedir Egypt? This study cmphasises the influencc of ancient cultures on thc cvolu tion of rhese technologies as well as the cultural sjgni{icance of the techlological processes and ihe materials ihat were produced. The ancient alrd replicatcd marerials were exanined using SEI4 ED); and WDS techniques. By viewing the producrion of glassy materials as part of a web of related technologies,all oI which are embedded h a continually developing culiural setting, a ftesh perspeciive on the evolution of glazing technologyhas been obtained. INTRODUCTION Over 5000ycars ago, the first glazcd materialswere produced in rhe Near last and Egypt (Vandiver 1983,Moorey 1994).Blue glazed objects werc made oI {aience, qraftz and stcatitestones.By about 15008.C.,vesselsand othcr objectswere beinSmade from glass across the Near East ar1dEgypt (Lilyquist and Brill 1995).In Mesopotami4 glazcd *- 240 SatuhPdyntet a d Michael Tite clayobjectswc.ealsobelng produced (Moorey 199,1). However it was nor untit around l h ( l - . c , . h r ! B . C .t l . r t g d , , e d. l " v , , bj . . . . r r d , . h p , r i 1 5 . . r p o ( J r r n . F ;tnc , " D t / r l , L n m : nr l a d o rC . . . n . h pw r \ t ' l " , r t . et e , h n . t ^ g \F \ o \ H d , o 1 1 . r , r h . r . , g " . ' o t different materiats,and pro.tucts,be erplaine.l? This paper descdbeshow scieitfic , ' r m ; r r f i , ' n a r d c \ o e r i r , r r d tr e p t ; ,r r i u I t - " r e o e " r u . e J L o r F , o . r - f r u , | | h c p r u ( e 5 s e 5 involved inthe production of theseditferenr glassymaieriat artefacts.Theseprocesses are then htcrpreted in rhe conrextoI the ancient culiures, wirh the aid of preserved 'dcnL lc. ru '\ e dnd lhe .rr.\;, utoti. dt r., orJ. Bi . re* ng tt e pr^d r.ron ^ etdssr nJre-,rr..p . l r . . . r \ ^ e b . t r H ' r t p iJ( ' , n n o o s e r- " r " h . r - n r c . m o e d d c J i n a ,urlil.Jjll,oe,cl,,pin8.Jlfu - -prfirg. ?.ht.r.pec,:\, on,f.(\ou,,orufetd_/mt technologvhas been obtained. GLASSESAND GLAZES A glassymate al is a homoSeneous,bur amorphous,solid. A glaze is simpty a thin coating of glassbonded to a subsfrare. The glassy ma teriats m;rnuJactured in tire ancierr Near Easi 'ere produced using the glassformer sitica, the sourcesoI which lr,er! q-uartzpebblesor saJld.The meiting iemperatureofsitica is very high, around 1700aC Howcver ceftainoxides,'fluxes',will reactwi d1silicato producea melt at temperatur€g lower than 1000'Cand when the metr cootsa glassis formed_In ajrriqu y, alk;ti flure3 were used for making glassy maredats.The atkatiswere obtained from the ashesoa certaindesertplants and were mainly sodium oxide wfth a smatl amourr of potassiu. o\ d.. n.r8ne.iLn o\ dr Jr d -on( orner.ompourd- in rJLifion ,Opp"n\"im sl J 1970jTur.ner1956).InEgFr, there was anorhersourccoI sodium oxide in ttre Iorm d natrory an cvaporitic deposit found at the Wadi Nar.un. The cotouranr used in rL earliestillassymatedalswas a copper ore. Copper oxide dissotvesin Stassymateri.b and, d epending on tlle lomposition of the gt ass,will colour it from b]u; t" g*"". Orq small amounh, around 2%, are required ro proddce . brighr colour. The propedies of a glassymaieriat are dependenion which compoundshave bea d.ldeJ^ h.. ... a"dirwhdt rFtdti\..orJl1 ] l . , . I n e w r ) i r w n . h t t - en d t e r i ailr rh"r pr^cc\seddl.. o- y. I prrt. f^r r\Jmpl. i i. po.-ibtF to \rn t'le meltit temperafure,the refractive jndex, rhe opaciry, rhe cotour, the resishnce ro attack and thc thermal erpansion coe{ficicnr of rhc glass, depending on $.i cgTpgnets ard processingiechniqueshave bcen used to producc it. As each oxi added to the silica has a different influence on ihe propertiesof the resutting glas6, combination of many oxides is usually requtred to pioduce a g1;:ssr,vith ip-tinur This descdpiion of glassesand glazesis based on current understandinqbut ts|.r.,\ndr' r Jt- ir n ,fiqu y sJ, \e.' d ..renr.t orr.Lraret].Jme t .un i\F trr t(n in,hp -L mFnarr,o c(r idiJ I ta'lglJse. rt^e. i.r ure oim scna . d) lrblF,-. tnit dp.crioe ,hF drfiluJe " r ,"--...-.ni -o, icfie- roh j d, tne si. matedals thai they produced (Oppenneim et al 1970;Reinei 1995).TheseteG supplementthe information gatheredthrough scicntific examinarionof a efacts. reconstructedchain of technolo$ca] steps can then be viewed in rhe coniext oa (L rurFdt d e . T, Jnd plr.e o. orooL.fi.n. Th. Et)alut'ion oJCttlzijlgTechtltlagies 241 ARTEFACTSMADE FROM CLASSYMAlFRIALS *''"'*ttti:**ir*l**i***tli',:'l-$ *s*:rt$g**tt*'*li*;ti** rr*tr*l:*mt*Trr,Tiffi n$ il["Tr,r,niT,",:,."il*'ffi f,1TiJ*_i;,ltl*;'i"t*l*;.,;g* ;r,ifl+i11if"''lr#[i'filr#1,:m::$.T;i:::i1]]*, ff :; :l&:n::,::"';*i ;,n:ut'ji;:".":1*Jlt $:.."",i,f; ilii:.,:H-;r! :it:ll. :,::;j;,:: il;i',.i;::: :ilJ, *;;.;,t*;iilili$s j;i ; :*fN:qit ;::I il ;:fi ifiir:::iri:;l;iftii:i;r r;i:';l :r; ;"::ir;"1.:;i:::;:;::;: x1 ;";, il!t :'lTi:#;:l ,t*:i,::r: -ir$p"+mj*:l*ri*il".q3""l1""Ll r : "';ll;"t." :l :I; "::,il;;;:iff lj+f,lI[..":r :11i; :;::" I;r *ffi ;' ; ;' -Ut:'l;-l t*,ilii--::-;f :iil :;rilr:r" : jlTti"; :;'n'i:;r:::1 r,'* lt:*,*t*l "'"'"'.'",Y;'l; ilmii:;*li.';;* ::T; li". iii;::;t:''"'' ^JH".]m$;lTff $".,,i1:T"1T*:ili"."#ff ;i',fr :,H::.11::ffi :lT r-.]-&- 242 SarahPay tet and Mbhael Tite ,1000 B.c. 3000BC. Mesopotamir 2000B.c. 1000B.c. .1000 B.L 3000B.c. Eg}?t 2000B.c. OA.D. 'jx::,,i: ur*a'"oro"ies rorpraducins s :; ?;:{;'tr;#;:;;:#r,:];:Jfi;;.o1otv r , r' i t n i J i , J n l q L r . r n f i t i e . d c r u - . \ 4 H . o o ^ l . u ^ l i a d n o F b l p , lron-tjlpnorar.nqFof o-9"., "d in.tudns ve...s pt.rque. .. h Vetopor,ria. g r J ;nra1 :ll:'"l,ll* clay objectsare introducea at afout tne iarne hme. the eartiesrclay qtazes arecopper brue/ sr".".o*u_pr"" or"i"1pi"por, :,:ilt:I:l*"y,y 9.c., n.,,:t... oun.L darins,n rrrer4rn irh , ll:-,,:1 clru.yd c ..; ;il,;_';;;; , l m J n dt h p , . ,c e n t L rB ) C . . . , n J r t . , n - ; ;"t .J" r y r * . " , . . , " , . . r " - r r r J :nfi.l ".0, '"1 .n r d i f . , F n . r ( , , h r . t , , aryu r t - rr d i t u r " o Iil 1 'in : , itt-. : ,1,,"" 'ranJrd.fL-ed \edr cJct r.iir thJi r#c. f *o_g,.,;"g r..h"jt.e\ ., b;; l-d',co.ig ndrcdet.ctrhFr,..o-oodbt\L. rne V"dr.e r.'.ar",eB.;;Kt:;;; lhe_rcmpo,Jr dnd -pdhJtoF .iburiunot gtr..y .,,*,.,r ,"j".rG.. . ,r," . Np.Lr, rr-\L.r-,L lrurdrFpd ir fig. t1. t1i- Llx.oa,,,o8j ql 5i,e- ,i.e r,, ttr,_"s \ ^ l - i c h w i l l b c c i . , u - 5 e d n L r e t u r o \ ^i - r g t e , t . TheE-oattt)n o.fGltlzingTechnotogics 213 QXESTION1: WHY WERECLAZEDCLAY oBJECTS NoT PRoDUCEDUNTIL l J t s l o e , s O r B ( . , . H - t d, \i rp . , o , _ t o r F . r . J "F.)...brec,-h.rc_t"red.bulo,trrfre, jj:i;;i :.y:-:t"::t:;: ;.1":.\ i';,".ril :"l,"?;j :,;::Ji:liij!;,i ;;::5;':)::'"il*"::l*,111'.."*"'$.::i:lrrrp*"*ori"r"ij",o""i'^,;;;l;l*) _,lH i;"r,11 il"""11 r li:;:*I*:*il:f",1 u^;**": f.{+i*i,!ii'.:i,;ti:" :iiT;.]:T r* :;:*J [XT;"]X1, x:r:::"::i:", :""i ;it clayc h.ve much lowcr tJErmal e(Ddn :l::: l,:;: ;I::,:l::':,ll;il;_.,,=;,f::t;:_jllijl msmatch i\ Lnown r\ L:razing. It llas iu ; ';;,,1,::t:j|ni : ;::iTi;:';t:i il:' ; IJi P".;.i;rT'"''* j:rilT,l;lii :tirt:.il;* T;rn: : lrii:::i:r,"1.ii..:;J: "ll;:li ." :l::;":.iJ H;*' " .:,.1 i.." Ti:";'i;!gil",illi.l:'1,,",e:'.e :": """,,,.,.,g..; g,",;?;".1.:"!,'.ll,ll:j"j": .ii:i'i.:::"J;::.; ll.;;;;;; Replicating Llk,Clazing Technolog! Qu.rtz .r[d stLaiiresrone\n er! s]az(d i t;';r;"":' il :1 *l ;l;:r ;l;#:mil;dj ^8*',li,f j*":i:i;;:::::t,:ji:il:il:T,',1:;i*itrj:ru1 .:l*i ,,uJ, l/ -,on \ rnJd., ". ." *,,".,:,i Jl:j .".iJ:::,:;:li; ",:,1,1,,,..::ii crnv, oi sjmitar compon rn i. na.*"olr +t':.,:1''':ffi:,,1:.fi )t*;iil;":::l.,l*:i*{t#i.ilj"1y::'1:}"J "",,.#: ; ;r:::;'"';,:l*r :iil*:hii ;*j ll;r:.lH ;.i,ri nu' so'u.,.'Lr,^, ." ",..-.., .. ,,i'01:,:, :l T:il pna\es ro,m \vtrrLh Lause ihe $;e to he ol i:ii:i ::'in,:: .i:;. %'i;Ji :;:.:i,.;i:i:t:,.:i ::ll;:lll;l; i:v:l;l:li,l :i,i., i"t,;.ii ri*. jll;,;i:x I l,::.,: 1,1.,l;. :it;:li"l;.: ;l:": i,i:;l I ii.j:: n'co'' lo'F\Fn "/J1H n' dlned,'L. :, :";;' -;1"J, il 1li" il;l' ;::?,: f* SarahPaynterandMichaelTite 244 c. FigLoe13.2:Scafining etectrcn fiictost:Jpe back-scattetedelectrcll imageof gldzei oi '1i3ht tluutr; ":"' B " : ,." k ' t r ;1'ar t t ' u t 3Stasu ,iith \" " u u l \ !p,ctt dark Qtrut mitenat-: 4. Quattz tv.' ' ' 1 - ' ailoze vuuttt t.r' at tlt\hl tontot4tnt.a.on ,iRhlt m0inltl p,ev, m0inly with balto,11 Lttnttontot4tnt RtrYt tdark balto,1. 3lar, \darkR,eV. 31a'-u?la4 d a r k a r e 'u Jip.ptudb a b^ttunt ^ l t u n )'atth .otth ^lor.t . - L ;rirc'' , ; . , "rynal" d . t - t dtda* n * , v F\rPu'. rt rY200: ) O OC : C It llau a u ((dart' 3,cu l i p p l r d . rlAA (ry-1011iff..)r-iutar 1a'.lionlarn thnt '0inat haltu be,ollrd a llat Therefore, a glazing technology based on the application of a mixture orrly alkalis ar d I copper compound is limiied to silica-rich stonesGnd silj ca-dch beciusc the object being glazed mtlst conlain enough sitica with which the a alkalis and copper oxide can react to fom a blue glaze The method is not on the Mcsopotinrjan alluvjal clavs and therefore the develoPment of a different nology, althoughbased on the sameraw materials,was necessarybcfore,day ard rhis i' d i* tt'bcdin rhe nc\r \e! riunor lhi\ oaper' .oLrl; b" 'u, ce*fully 8,rd-,ed TheEooLution o.fGldzin&Teckntt)gies Q ^ Lsfl t o \ 2 :r - 24s \ t L \ J r t (A \ t t H A r L l \ , / r D ( t c y o B l L ( - l \ A R J' t R 5 t -AMlrv. A\(,rAs\\, r,i,s ARr i,n,,.oori,io l{?l!,+8,),1,J, As discussed above, gJazed clav ob x*;:..--ru*'tilU#'ml-*5y:'i:r,ui1'*"iii:l.H; ;*'.r*i:tmt ::*-li*:***;:rfi:i.:Sl'!i[rlll!'ii!:'1: \!ater.thc.recosnize.:ie,*..r;o*;..;1"",1",'""T:ffi:i:1"J:l*:i?"Sfli:[;: -*" ""a*'"""'pprv'il ;;;;; ;tiff" n,x''.].l]lJJ',ii;::'F.*".:T;',Ti .";#1l:#::*":*l'il51Jly;fr i:?il:;;:Hi:,ng,:iliit,*,.ln1'";::. . ,d \ 'fl.'u).lonerur hep,..'ui\ r pn,p* "a i, v"-poil'",. L. ,rii;",;.::i::. to1500 BC un*"""'.in*^ 5::"f#.fi::':l#:":i"Jl,:li:"T i::T**v prjor j,:ilqr :l".?:il:[*]t :?:i*fl itT::+i:H!:ilfir:$::J":r':ri? ."*"y "r sil;s -;;;;J; 1500B C rhe mostcom'rehensi!' , or.*st,,"J.,.i.-"p;.:,d.ili*,:l;jili il;;l:il :flI::;1:llf;J o r r i - . r , , i. , a n i n a i o . r r o r u h p , , h e ofri\nr #J,"'"*d rl,:;l j :l :j,T ):} }:ltix"i": ;": : I::;ji:::."jjill ;{,T,{f iir" i:I ',..n"0o,. n i c r . , . , o o r .> r r . :.::;,,..1:i,:o i:ill:"';;i;,;;Tilli:i'l"l;:'1,::;jt'"'<u-'oJL.rc'h.\-..n., e.or8 11'Jr'\oJsf ,,,' n.,,. cJrnr-cr.'^-r,,rI rer \ ", ;J i:: I:-XiJi' '") ol' icL '' mi'' :oe'\ n,,'co.oJL, h .n " ;:[;ill"'. ,"i::]lli;*:Yn: b.,4cen in,.so,e\hn.roq. ii;, :;:.":J'0.'::9,:l ;i::. ; ; jl,jlll, iil * ;liilr";:"';: :;::;::f : :,;,.:1.": :i),"; :lI :li:l{ :t":i;1,,.,j tr'rm the litcrrLurc. B.th gta\\es rnd slaz( ":l#:r#:r.:;;:.?::";i:.':;.:;:: ,;p;;t' i:1*ir. il,Ti:;iJlT:'tlil::"T ;T:il,::lfi ":;J:fl ru*l ::*n" :'".l*..; TabLe13.1:Aretuge collrpositioas af gtrzesand glasses lraltt MesopaLanlia Sio, 639 Nxro 1 50 15.,1 KrO Cac) N{gO 2.8 :lt Fqo: 412f)3 09 2.8 1.2 2.8 246 Sanh Piynter a d Michael Tite similar. If ground up glasswas applied to the surfaceof a clay objecL and fired to 10U0'C,a slaze would form. The slightly larger quaniitiesoI alunina Al,O:, potashLO and iron onde Fe,O.n1 the glaze,relative to the glass,may bc due ro the addition of illific clay to the gLzing mixturc.If theglaze\.as applied as a water suspension,or'slop', rhe addftion of a little {ine clay to the slop would help to keep the glassy matcrial in suspension and would lmprove the adhesionof thc glazemixture to the objectuntil it could be fired. However since some glazes (and more rarely glasscs) contain more potash than magnesia bur little aluminium oxide, other potential causesmust also be considered. One way Ior ihe glaze to have becomeenrichedin alumina, potash and iron oxide is for thesecomponentsto have diffused from the clay itseu into the glaze dLuing fi ng. However cxperiments with glazes and clays of different compo;tions, usin; different firing conditions,havc shown that it is unlikely thar aUof th;se component-i couldhavc diftused throughoui the thick Mcsopoiamianglazcs(0.5mn1insomecases) to such an exient that a urliform compositioncouldbe obtained.In particuta. aiumina shows a low level of mobility. Also other diatnostic feafures woutd be present if a large amount of diftusionhad occurred,Ior examplegreaterconcentrationsof calcium r]chcrystalline material in the gLazeas a resr t of increasedcatciumdjJiusiontuom the I I I I I I I | I I I I I I t I It secmsprobable,thcrefore,thai pottcrs made useof a differenrvadery, or quatirt of plant ash or that dirferencesin the fritiinS allld preparaiion procecluresused by potters as comparcd b glassmakersresulied in a diffcreni rario ofpotash to matnesia in ihe Iinal product. This indicatcs that, atrhougll potters made tsc of simitar.r.aw il:i:':H:,:I:::,f1X'ffi: ::fttTi"'*:1,T':#i::ffiti:1'ft:*' I Egyptian faienccglazesdiffer in compositionfrom both Eglptiin and Uesopota"mian I glass,in having higher potash contentsbut significantly lower lime and magnesia I contents(Shortl.rnd2000).Thus, it would appear ihar yer differenr raw materiati were I "'3f '::i:i,:: ;l,r:;:'.J:::':,,..n- h.orcady,< e..toa ec.,,or"g) .md I matedals for successfullyglazing clay objecrswhich had nor been available before, explainnrgthe emergcnceof clay glazing rechnologyat the samerime as gtassmaking I ! i:::ri"-.:'iiifyJ*tJ:i"i:"",itJ:il1it""Ji't":iiii:il1 I ::?'1l'tr"#:l:,:"i.tJ:ilJ;::iilil??':;Bl:::ffiff i5iii.'1i:,;'fr:"t even thouth there is scattered evidcnce oI some expedmenration with glass for I qfrmgi**mffih- TheEoalutiallaf Ctazin* Technoto:1ies 247 widespreadgeo8raphrcally._Iurther,the poputadty of glazed clay does not seem to havc been adverselyaffuctedbv rhe f.rctthat the alkali gfizes used will hale exhib ed a slgnt tendencv to crlze QUESTION 3: WIIY ARE ALI.ALI-GLAZED ECYPT? CLAY oBJECTS NoT PRoDUCED IN esrgti"l "rtsans bcsJnto proclucegiassvesselsar approximarely the san1e Me-opuldmiJ.8a/ed ctJ\ \c--et. rere nor prolL,.ec in felrrt unfil , r n J l ' r c l \ r L e n l u r \8 . 4 . .l l t r d - - p . o \ i d F dt \ e t e c l l n i , dnt, r . . ruproar,"iir,,"- r" .ray .ote\r1 v\1) rL thcrea dL.tJ,berhe.n thp .ntrodu.tjor o. g.a-, mali ,e dfJ th. .rd.'phon.i , ta) gtdl'ns lechnotog\in tB\pt.,One Do,"ib,'il) i;dr hJ- b"en .d;.cd . r)r. uiF .r.r)c d\,rrtdbt,u I g\ pt { crF :ntrin-icdl) lc-- _d,rb e nr {l",,ini tndntj_o)e , 1 u - e , n \ 4 c , o p o t j m i dA. n o t h c ,t h e , , j !i , t h r t t h F Ve.opo,am..p , ro r r e i _ ; 1 l , r . oeveropeu a le.M oue tfdt tdr;tifdtcdrl-egtJ,/iJrB "f thcir. 1"v.,of " hi.l_d1pI s\ oti.rL --hr.u ! !rcre unrnarc. tn o.der io e!a,rdlF rhe.e neor,,...it i, tir,. re. ".i'.r.r ru ch"rr.lp.i-pIl-(.,td),usedb\V.\,porrr{"np"ner-toprodJ.estr,,e;.i.i;.;":". ' . m P d c l h e T t o l h c , l J ) . a v d r , d b l e , ^ t q y p f i . n p o , i c r s- p - e d n " r h r e c " t r'rocr.ri.ri,, r n J rm L < r o e c u n c r d p r e dr .i .np - , i r G t h , . i t r b i I l , , f t n e , e c r . r y . t u r e t a / - n e w i r h d I d t i S r d 7 c .I n c \ c d r -t.h e - f l m a c \ p a r , i o n . o p F r . i c n t tol t. . . l d ) . l h e e \ . c r t n , . t , " r " . , t , o . bp heen Lnc.tdy .md he grJ/e "nd Ine cutour.,frhp firFJct.i\ j]lhoysl The thenMl expansiotl coefficient of the cluy Whe.rdnrlldlisl",,cis.rppl;pd,or,ta)ubie..urdrired,hL.Std,,cbe.on-c..1olrcn.r.d pr I hi gbiecr.Ac, hHob;(rr \ ft ,t\ d rcr rir,ns rhc grJ/e dr JrotJd -:/:^'::ol r u \ . r n , T | | 1 , - s p o r n t o r .h e S t d z e . d n n o t o r 8 e r a , r o o . n un.*oridiiie" d " l c r n e d i . f et h r epnr ^t r r r F \ p r i , ' \ J ,r o , i f i . i ( nol r t h r . d \ . L t h e S J / c . h r i n \ c m u " l n o r e . h d nt h e , J . r r . I n e I n ' r p d \ n t c f r ( . s . c \ o n t h F B t r , , e ! J Jtcoecirtn !k o r , \ r d , / p. n F . c t o r e. i s t h e , h j i r l L a s e or Ine c r\ n- 't .ootr froT q\0'( to roo.1 cmp.rrtLriF.lhat i.(rifi.dt ir d, rernini_i. h u w \ \ t r e r r . L / i l s t l i , b c .A ( t d ) r t ^ e r r , , r e \ p a , . i . " - " f r . , t . ; i i ; . ; f ,:",;l;;.,: r d p c r e r s e r n , r n T L n S d r d r i r c r e r .tah.c h r y i , \ ^ \ i c h t h e l : t . \ i . p r o ,p . . c d n a dr _ t - c iypc, and distribution, of rhe minerals thar the clay contains, deter;he",h" ,h";;l expansioncoefficient. \4c-opoJmial Do ur\ ;, H\, emet) Jn,to,m bp,r.r.F -td'ld"rdised nerh^o, or pr^drclrol wer( .rdoptedt.om ".nurd the trd n",UcnniunB.(.1\4\no,, ,08.t ujms qFI ni\eo. u\iJ,cti\- Thr.r'a1,narc., t8t,,J.iLmo\i,:Je.onre.i,;";,r;.;;f; orrcr,r.,cru-5, conlflbLrc.ro lhe higr 'hernat eroar.ior , ocfficienrot rhe ciai rtie. I r.t,. rn conrrd! rJrI g!.nld s;dc .dngeo., ldy, s er. Ld, ,cd oy , hc pot,,.,r,rar.,louii. ra\.nor rhe\pr tr\ - c,,ntdir\.dijfcrejltminpratsin \ J "r r,1gpropo"iionr a"pero.rr i. where the clay was obrained and how it was prepared. The N;le silt js piobablv the b c s rl n o v \n I g \ p , j a n .l d ) . t r h . i .r r e r \ o M . r t : i . m o \ , d e . o a t c , t r " a , t , , " . " , , t , U , r . , / o t n e ^ s h p r n d l e \ p d n ro n . w f . . i " r l ^ t t h i . , \ p e o . . t . r y r F i g tr..tt. The eafent of the reacfian between the clay and the glaze l4hen a glazed clay objecr is tued rhe gtaze and the clay will react. Some of tlle ctav 248 Sanh Piyntet ind MichaelTitr tlli * (ti 3 2 I {l llgyptlrn Nile Silt Lgyptl,n Nfixed E$!ti,n l,{xd Xlesopormian r\llurial Figure 13.3:Contparingthe thermal e:cpinsiotlcoefficients(on caolingJran 550"C to rcafi telnperahlre)Df Eglptian and Mesopota ian cla|s, sampledfiom artet'acts. .lissolvesiD the glaze;rndcrystalsform at the interfacebetweenthe glazeand thc clay. This region of jnteraction can act as a type of bufer beh^'eenthe glazc and the clay bccauseit has properties thai are intermediatebetween the two. The strcsscson the glazc nre therebyreduced and the glazeis lesslikely to claze.Thereforeif tllc feaction bctween the glaze and the clay is increased,the crazing of thc glazc will be reduced. Thc extert of this reaction is inlluenced by vadables such as thc duration and tcmperature of firing, whether the clay has been tued befon glazing, the composition of ihe clay and the composition of the glaze. Clays that contain high concentrations oI calcium and magnesium ondes (alkaline-carths)react wifi alkali glazesto a greater extent than othel clays, all other factors bchg cqua1. Such clays are betier suited to glazing with alkali glazes than other clays, as the glazeswill craze less.A scanning elecironmicroscopeimage of the interactionlayer fomed betweenan alkali glazeand an alkaline earth dch clay is shown in Fig. 13.4. Mesopotamiancla)Bhavc high calcium and magnesiumoxide contents(Fig. 13.5). This facilitates thc formation of the jnteraction layer and helps reduce crazing. In contrastthe Egyptian Nile silt containsvery 1jit1ecalciumor magnesiumoxidesand so there is littlc interaciion betweenthe glaze and the clay (Fit. 13.5). Thecalour.)f thefired cla| Thc compositionof the clay, amongstother facto$, also cont butes to ihe colour ftat The Epalutian af Glazing Technotogies 249 ptt t ran mr ras\op. b0tk.\ta . tc!1 fiRurP,l3.4: "l/, ! ftq inapr rI thci,11..]act;on Stoaar,.tg Iau,,rlatmll fuld?fn a alktli yla2r,r,LptInd 2, alkali,l?taflh.l0;\battott) 4n!,tor tlttpsttlptr\slal- arc ui-iblr in thc int" (ti laar, tro)U. develops when the clay is fired. Under rhe same tiring conditions, ctays thai contain high concentrations of iron oxide wil fire to a red colour. Howevcr, clavs that contain a \igh concentrdtion.r ,.J. un u{de \^; t firFro a p.rtebu,firotourd:" tJ th. to-ma,:.n of clystalline silicate phases, ever if the ctays at;6 havc high iron oxide contents. A glaze.applicdto a clay with this light colour wjtl appearbriihrer and lessdiscoloured than if it were applied to a clay wfth a dark colour. The l-;Bl^,dlcium o\.de,,f Ma,,por.rm;an.try-.du$5 Inem io t-.dvca patebufl c o l o u r w h e n l l c ) . i r e l L r c d . \ e r y . u i t J b l e f o r d i . p l d ) i r F " c o t . u r e d t shl a , o/ rn t r J c t , .in,erh..rliunru\ide.onien.o,thefS)pfi.m\'i..jri5tohbutir-;rt,n.onlcnr i. hr8h..r Iirp- lo i decp rcd colour Lmaert\e -dme firinr,onditjon.. \ blup(otuured glaze appearsalmost black asainst this su ace. 250 SarzhPaVnterdnd Michltd Tite 2l) 314 LT2 ?ro Q c 4 0. Egptian Nilc Silt Eglptian N{ncd Eglptian Nhrl X,Icsopotamian Alhwial Cl\pr' ,,, thr alAotintm, th , ont.nt. aJt wuin nndMp-apntt)nia,, Lta!-. l:!.,::-lt,:t: stttttPtrA trnm 01fetucts. d l l . r t gi l r / F - " p p l i e d t ( . . V ' . o n ^ a m d - . t r \ - g e n e r r , .ThJ)crr/p,. ,.Jndtuv..r b n i _ hbl l u e , o l o d r s h e . p J \ d i \ d S r il r / c \ r p p t p d o t F , ) p f i r nN . t c . i i + c r a l . " e v ( , c L \ rnJ l-r, e d Jl l r ol^1.. Hor evpr..J..t .red o er iuu"ty l5l prirn pollcr, nJde 1.. o m.,nj diJt.ercn. h pe\ of. ld) ir .u.,rcuit\irctud ne fgr pi:an n art . ra1. 6 ..nLo"1 1n r h p \ i l F - i i t - . f q y p f i . n - n a , t ( t J , , , . r . i J i n h i 8 h t e i c t a o f . d j , i u mi A o \ti rj .cc( lt . r n d co. l c V.,.pol, nid r ! la).. l,rve pruperte,.uiled to st",,ingv\itt-d r dti s dTcs{1re. 11.11. Tl'F'ci. d.'o r -ln8F^ orl-F.t y,)pti"n (rd)- wit\ ;tern cdi.rte,omoo"iU,n."# P r o o e - t ' eo, o po r h h i . h i " i l l u , l r " . F d, f r t I r 1 . u - Jf i g I r 5 , lr .u ffr"n l - a , b F c r dm , o ' L r r . t e dt h r . i l t \ " . p u . . i o l e o o b . d i n , o . D r p o d r e . - r a v -L:.db-ef., r,.r/ 4g { r,h dt"r,r e d/c- in .n. .nt I or. tr t-a_.rj.o bpen+i:bti.hej, J\ Ll1uuqh e\do_ndriorol glJr.d, d) .u..Ftdc,s. il"at Vcsopot,nidn arti..rr- (pre rol u.i rq dny Jddifi,rJr tecl.nioUp-. unkno* n ro f$ ori, porre-s.to rr, ilira,cgt".,ins. I rere hrdx b- -ub!l,,'lhrrprhedrdumFnl hdt , utturdttdc.,,r.,re targetl ru.pon.ibt for ihe tcchnologyIor glazing clay not bcing adopted in Egypr. Culturallnflttmces In Mesopotamiastone was a rare commodity and was used v!,ry setectivelyonlv for certain apptications.Thereforectay was used !o buitd structures,even momlnental ones, anct ior stahles and figudnes. The most widety a\.aitable stone was timestone, which was used ftom an early date tluoughout Mejopotamia. However evcn this is usually found in a subsidiary role to clay, hidden jrfomdation coumesor belind fhe Erol tian of Cltzitlg Technolqies 251 pt'ster (Moorey1994).prior ro r 500B.c- thcse crayobjectsaid structures*.erc decorareo :llu:*':hllHt.f *lH**rult :i:,1?,,:":; init*::i:mil ;**$**;*'"".';; x*:j*;l.:":rli1}tn*#i':l="[i=. *tr"iiit;lr",",ffi lilhnft ff*"$**;;ffi:xrtrfxtl.;i:::.;i." ';;n:i,ti,$i"r;**;"f :li;r:lxll.:i{**; rxik"d*.-rff L'"*r'' r""'u+ Ji''i'"*o"a il]:;':"1xiiil3:i:ll,'*'::1"1;'i'i'o'Ti::!:lg'o'*""';i"' mav norhave srazins b*" ;h ;*;*,rrj:;fiilii:Jiii,ii;;; ;;'gij:?:";,;LX: ''"',* ;ruiil-:tru llli,-r:i"[":":"'"?:it::"r;HilTt il: * rd,ig ;lJi.l:'l;lf fl}H{iiffl;il1'"*::r::':u,v.*" i,'"..'',;;;;.;p;;," beca'seor its *r#i,'"."i"ii..i'rilir occause ot iis m'teriatpr"pertreir"t 'tso nlir:*Ti:,: :}: m:*:':**::uu**:i:lr r,{i*::1'::ii, "'... l;1::';:"1 :ilii lx: ;*li:;'T':;;I lti:;li:tll;'*,i "ir"ir ;li; ;:;:;:i;;ij;lirillilil:li 1,.:r;;,il : )ii,i.ill -,F.pi..,_Fro. ,.:.",.'.",:tl L'"J,.:::,tit.;j.:ri*, ll,',i;;;,1;11.' 51:::l'::1,;rl :l :;1",;:.:l;l]":n,i :r,:l"tiirr.i;: j:;: :":r;:;';.i;1,1,1,"r:, l.lr';'ji,F;ii:;:i i:i;r;trlj :i;:::[j n.'F'" ;" n-rFrJ " ,, ".i.,," -i",;;';:i:l;:;ililil.j',j":l:l;i* i:,.r ;:r't::l I :l'r"",;1' iliri:n.irj *j;:;l ;',Ji."[J:],1".'":5, jl. ;:; J:'; h:.#1;)il' .1I;;:),J.'5: i:j::;:1;.':tij.,;::t: Jl ::;l:;;:i.l-1,; t,!:i*n: tl;;tli li:il t,; ::t.rfli,il;,: ; appcar.rnce L,f f,rjence, w h jtb irncrazed r':;'; :.tJ{ :1*: :;:l*::i,:ljf+r,* l *Uij ;; t;:ll .,;l]; ';"1;;, p.Hp, rr,;;"r "., ;lii. ;::l;,l';:t 1,., , ,.,, ,, :,iJ -n,r8 ;:;1;,. :r.;;,;: ;,:;:::;jil:,:'.;l:.":,'i_, jiTl :l :J"::,: 1::f,'j;t:.;" 252 SarahPnynterdndMichaelTite This period in the ancientNear Eastand Egt?twas a time durinil which the armies o{ Tuthmosis I campaignedfar outside ihe iraditional bordem of Egypt, invadnlg the Lelant and appoiniing loca1rulers loyal to Eg]?t.'fhc archaeologicalrecord and documentaryevidence,such as the Amama letters,give an insighi in to ihe extent of thc tribuie and trade that passedbetyeen the various powers in the Near East and Eg],]rt.Items exchangedincluded glass,scmi-preciousstones,metals,faiencealrd frit objects.TIle fact that there js no archaeolo$calevidencethat glazedclay objectswere impoftcd h to Egypt would indicate that theseobjectswcrc simply not soughi after. CONCLUSIONS It is apparentthat ghzhg technologydid not develop in isolationbut was influc'r1ced by developmenh in other cmfts.Closecontactbetweenartisansin!oLvcd ina range o{ different icchnologiesis more gererally a crucial factor in ihe development of new technologies(Tiie.l ri 2001).Ihus, Ireltcnbllrg (1987)has suggestedthat, since the ploduction of glass vesselsinvolvcs the manipulation o{ hot, viscous fluids, the de\.elopmentof this new technologyrequired input from mctalworkers. The workinS practiccsor polifical situation at this padicular timc m:y have facilitated this inter craft exchangeoI technologicalexpedencc.Fo1example,artisanswer.eexpectedto be skilled 'ith malry mate als and might work in close proximity to other artisans in royalworkshops. Also thc formation of new and powerlul statesinMesopotamia and Egypt durhg the pcriod around 1500B.C. may ha\.e led to renewed sponsorshipof artisans(Moorev 1989). Since,in ihe scientific study of ancient technologies,ihe diJiereirtmaterials (e.9. pottcry, itlass, metals, organics) are often considered separately, the evidence of overlap and commonality between technologies, which might indicate the transfcl of a processingtechniqueor raw materiaI from one to ihe other,is harder.todetect.Th1lsan terdisciplinary appfoach has grcat poteniial in the study of other technologicsin other periods and Beographicalarcas. The developmcnt of technology is olten entirely attribrtcd to restriciive iechnologicalfactorssuch as the fiing temperaturesattainableby thc kilns, the raw materialsavailablc and the technicalexpertiseo{ the crafts-person.As a result, other important factors, such as the social, political and ideological significance or associationsof a particular processor product in an ancieni culture, are sometimes overlookcd-The processesfor producing an artefactmustbe inter?retedin the context of thc culture in which the artefactwas created,and not in the contextof the culturein which it is benrg siudied. For erample, a glass might be consideredsuitable for a particular application today on the basis of price, thermal expansion coefficient refractiveindexanddensity.Ho'ever,hthcancientNearEastitismorelikelytohave bccn selectedlor its colour, opacity, and hstre; attributesR'hich were consideredto nnbue ii with certain medicinal powcrs (Reiner1995).Iinallv, the exceryt of ancient texi given belo\a', which is thought to pertain to glass making in ancient Mesopotamia (Oppenheimet i]l 197{l),illustratesthc in terrelationshipsoI technologicalprocesscsand the cL ture in which thcv dcvcloD- TheE nlufnn,,t Gla:.ingTechnata*es 253 '\ 4rn you rer up rhe tomdation ofa klln to make gtass,you firsrsearchin a f.vourabt! nonth {or a propftiors day, and rhen onty you set up rhe foudation of thc kiln. As soor, d s \ n u r d \ p . u r ? p l e\ I n , - ? d ) u u g o d n J p t d . r h c , . ( u b ui t u A " . , , o u ^ , J r : , s r r r q e - h o ud t h e F r ' t e .e r p - L . b . i d n F . i . u t e n p e r . r . o u . . n " e \ . n o d s sn r 1 1 " " . J , t - " , . " e e - \ o u , r t s u j . , n p) e r r n t i o r c o n n r . . r l g . " . r . . r r , . ,trir".i. O,, "". *-. \ o u p ; . e r h , . m . r " r n r h F J n r . " m . t e r . h e e p- . r r r , . . b p r u r . , . ! Ir u : bu ! i q " r , \ n , p t . ,p i u , ,D p - , , rF r - eu n | n p , . - . , , ., )., .",. "J ; i;,,;:;.;;" d o S r r . p J r d t h m ) o u h a l n I i c i . r h i . h e d r t h n . t h\ e i t n r n J f t a , r h e , . m e t J I, n. , r Ul' rhe p. Fol. h o iuu ttui o cunp nrdr r]re iln ru{ be.n d.r}, t,.; .;,,; r".i.. duo* ilem ru co, F dom ro rhF . i n. fr. (.oo bu-n i. rh" ".",jr_ " ii;; i;, ) . u \ h . r u i d b r . i , t . p . e t F , p o p r d ,$ o . d : o e - h h i . h n . p a u bo - ".,";,;*;. . ;";,i, r F , r h p - r d p . d n d , - r i . t h p n o n r h u r A b u .o n r \ t n j \ h o o o \ h o r t o g , , r r"itr, . itn ACKNOWLEDCEMENTS Sr would lir e to 'n.url \tRCfordRcsed(n5,uoent-hiplt-at prov,ded tundinp wntLL undetaking this research.We would also Ljte to thanl 1,i",,"" v""i."ri co[eaguesat the Urtversjty of Barce]onafor compLeringlhe .lilarom"hy;f l"J r.rll. ;h" .;; ,aflo $.. fhc (or.idFrdble e\penr.c of ftcd ro Rubson'dnd R"s". V;.r"i, ,"; ;; xrvarrrDte adv,cp ot thp icdm Jt t\p Rt AHA ;n, ludilq Chri. Doh,yl) a'ld ArdJeh Shordand, are also grearty appreciated. REIERXNCES Beck,H. C., 193,1, Notes on glazed stone part IGlazeil stearitu,Ar. ient F-gvptdaLttheEdst,tg 8E_ Beck,H. C., 1935,Notes on gtzed srone parr II Glazed quars,,4r. iekt EWt otu1thc Last,lg37. Fd:1n:r, F D., (ed.), 1ee8, Gifrsaf the Nite-Ancidt EWrm, /r;c,.e, Thmes and Hudson, I I e d , B . -R . l ^\4.. . 8 2 . l t l ) g 1 / ,d p u t t p - \ 1 , , d . , i - - . . L. V..opJld,.r in t p,,re, t A dno p-a t",1.r,taFu . L t n 1 . r n j i h . u a i n t r , r . i . I u n I r e \ . .W J - . r g l n n KleimJtu,.B r |\.Jr\ dnddq?.upnAr! rf pi t)'-'im, p. c1 ptaa - n OtD. c J. J o . , o 8 u(.p , t *" \ p . a , + d . n 8 t t , c 2 , 1 . 14 t , h l a o h t t u - u a , r . , ; a , / , q 4 _ n i r - h . , n r . | :Dsdruuon " I rr ess,washingrun D.C Lilyquist, C. and Brill, R. H.,1993, Stttliesia tn y Egyptidrgtass, Mehopolitan Museum ofArt, Lrcas, A and Haris, J. R., t962,Arcicnt EgFtian lnatdak and ifldtlsjtits, Atnotd, London. Mason, R. B. and Tfte, M. S., 1994, The Leginnings of tsiamic "r.""p*r" ;" ;i;Sy, Atchneanctry,39,47 58. \4an.-).n.R:..,vdo.Ih,Hurnr..h-W.,ni.hdt.,.^tu8:,.Imo\Jl,.n,indF\4o\.r.L. "-dHdpn1.\.f.r.o..,.4aht"rto,.at,o,,,rdOa*,,t,-,ri...1t.,na.""o"o,:,,.;-,r,:;,;'; Beryhe,G).Enr, 273-286. Mooret ". R. S., 1994,Arcient Mcsopototnianniknals ard inrtrrrics, OrJord Unive$try prcss, \ , 4 n u l s .l . \ : r " , . t o r ; , - , t h , t t t i , t a r t c n n t u n F . t . . , t . t \ r 1 0 t \ . ^ apl t r , t" h r n 4 t u < o. a l a8D6:.ktV:k,t \- ,af .d, m dLtt.\ oubt\hcdfhDrh.s..Uni."r,,l"fr"r,;:;;,;.:' 254 SarahPaynter a d Mithsel Tifll O D p e - ' c i r , A . L . ,8 l r . R . H . . B d . d B . D . d n d \ o n S r t o e n , A . , p 7 O , J o . . a a d e t a \ . n t k l q t n n a h n t M p \ o p o l a n iIo n . h,ng \4r.eum ot Ltd\\. Nes \ or(. Peltenbug, E. J-, 1982 Early faience: recenr studies, origirN, and retarions with gtass, in Bimso4 M. md Freestone,L C- (eds.), Earli! vitreaus Materiak, Bdrish Mueum Occa;ionai paper s6, London, 5 29. RejM, E.,199s, Astml ruBic in Bavania, Amefte "hilosophical Societp phnad+hia, 119 732_ Rye, O. S., and Evans, C., 7978,Ttaditional pa&ery tcchniquesof pakistan,sif]lthsoni.n Insrftution Bess, Washington D.C. Shortland, A. t., 2000, ytt rcaus nateials dt Anama, BAR Inrernationat Series 5827, Oxford. I i e . M S . n d B m o n . V . . t o S q C l . / e o . r , . J r i t e-.n u , \ c \ r ' q J h o u , r h e m F u r u d so t s t a z n e u q { i n t ' . i F q rl $ o l , t N t 4 dA r c h a p a t q y . 2 t . s 7t } u . Turner, W. E. S., 1956, Stualies in mcienr gtasses and gtass making piocesses. pa.t III The crrcnology of glass naldng constitumts, / Socr!ry class Tect latagV, 4n,39_s2. Tite M. S., Shoritand, A. J. Md Palnier, S, 2001 (in press), The begi;nin8s of glass md glazed pottery production in ecimt Mesoporania ud Eg'?L in Reedy, C. dd Hansen, E.-ieds.), Theorybuilding in studiesoJrcchnotosicatinnoutiofl afltsryb, Cot;n lBrftue of Archae;rogi, V"19y"t P: 8., 1983, Egyptian faience rechnotogy, Appendix A in Kaczmar.zyk, A. md Hedges, R. E. M.,,lrctenf Egyptiafl fdience, A'i,s ald philips, Warminster. Vmdivea P.-B-, 1998, A rcview and proposal of new criteria for producrion rechnotogies of Egyptian faiorce,in CotidL S. and Menu, M. (eds), La coutdr daflsta rcintne et r,;ai oge d c I l f l p l p a " . i r a n r .E d t p u Si a . B d i , l 2 l ' J ! .

RELATED PAPERS

RELATED TOPICS

Log In

The Evolution of Glazing Technologies in the Ancient Near East', in A. Shortland (ed), 2001, The Social Context of Technological Change. Egypt and The Near East, 1650-1550 BC, 239-254.

The Evolution of Glazing Technologies in the Ancient Near East', in A. Shortland (ed), 2001, The Social Context of Technological Change. Egypt and The Near East, 1650-1550 BC, 239-254.

Related Papers

RELATED PAPERS

RELATED TOPICS