Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones: hunters and herders along the Pindus chain of western Macedonia (Greece) Nikos Efstratiou, Paolo Biagi, Paraskevi Elefanti, Panagiotis Karkanas and Maria Ntinou Abstract The surveys and excavations carried out in the highland zone of the Grevena Pindus Mountains have revealed that the watershed that separates western Macedonia from Epirus was (seasonally) inhabited in different prehistoric times, from the Middle Palaeolithic to the Bronze Age. The highest concentration of ‘sites’ is known from the surroundings of the modern village of Samarina, which is rich in good-quality chert raw material outcrops. This territory is still nowadays heavily exploited by Vlach shepherds who seasonally carry out pastoral activities, moving their flocks from the eastern lowlands up to the high-altitude pastures. The excavations carried out at three different sites, all lying on a flysch substratum, revealed the presence of a redeposited lower sediment, characterized by a polygonal soil caused by ground freezing that was later effected by erosion canals produced by human interference in the landscape. The results so far obtained from a few charcoal radiocarbon dates indicate that this fact took place in at least three different periods from the middle Bronze Age to the seventh century AD. Keywords Highland zone; Pindus; archaeology; Middle Palaeolithic; transhumance; pastoralism; anthracology; soil micromorphology. Introduction At the end of the 1960s local amateurs discovered the first high altitude Mesolithic camps in the eastern Italian Alps (Bagolini 1972) and, a few years later, this highland zone became one of the most intensively investigated in Europe. These unexpected results, which brought back the peopling of the Alpine world to the Middle Palaeolithic, World Archaeology Vol. 38(3): 415–435 Archaeology at Altitude ª 2006 Taylor & Francis ISSN 0043-8243 print/1470-1375 online DOI: 10.1080/00438240600813327 416 Nikos Efstratiou et al. were illustrated in the proceedings of two different congresses held by the Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali (Bagolini 1983; Bagolini et al. 1992). They were later followed by the proceedings of another round table on the highland zone exploitation of south-east Europe (Biagi and Nandris 1994) and the discovery of the importance of mountain archaeology in various regions of Europe (see, for instance, Valde-Nowak 1999; Tillet 2000; Meshveliani et al. 2004). This work demonstrated that mountains did not necessarily act as cultural barriers, at least from the Neolithic onwards (Schekenburger 2002), a view highly reinforced by the recent discovery of the Copper Age Similaun mummy (Fleckinger 2003). Given these premises, and the absence of research in the key region of the Pindus mountain range of south-east Europe, a research project was launched by the Department of Archaeology of the University of Thessaloniki in order to recover archaeological sites in a region that, like the Italian Alpine zone before the 1960s, was previously thought not to have been settled earlier than the Iron Age. The Grevena highlands The area considered in this paper is located within the Ligkos Mountains, in the core of the north Pindus range (Fig. 1). It consists of a broad, uplifted landscape that constitutes the southern edge of the Dinaric Alps. This highland zone is characterized by a series of ridges, separated by plateaux deeply dissected by river courses, with many peaks Figure 1 Map of Greece and the area of research. Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 417 exceeding 2,000m. The highest of these is Mt Smolikas (2,640m), at the western edge of the region. In particular, the altitudes in the north Pindus are higher, which makes this rugged topography relatively inaccessible even today. The surveyed area, which yielded most of the archaeological ‘sites’, is located around Samarina. This village lies along the eastern piedmont of Mt Gorgul’u, close to ‘the junction of two small streams, one rising at our feet on the Mormide and separating that from Ghumara, the other rising on the col called La Greklu near the village of Furka. . . . Just above this confluence and on the slope below the pine woods of Gorgul’u is Samarina itself’ (Wace and Thompson 1913: 37). This territory is of unique geographic importance, because east of Samarina a long watershed extends between the courses of the Samarina River or Samariniotikos, to the west, and the Venetikos, to the east. This fact is pointed out by Hammond who reports: the central watershed between the Adriatic Sea and the Aegean basin is formed by the range of Greenstone between Grammos and the Zygos . . . the watershed lying further to the east varies from 1,700m to 1,600m in height, and then turns south-west into a long high ridges . . . which terminates in a wide plateau to the south of Milea; from the plateau . . . the Pinios and the Venetiko take their sources. (Hammond 1967: 11, see also Map 1 at pp. 4–5) The surface of this watershed is characterized by an undulating plateau with altitudes gradually increasing towards the north west, from 1,400 up to 1,900m (Plate 1). It is rich in springs and watering holes, which are seasonally exploited by the Vlach shepherds of Samarina and the neighbouring villages of settled pastoralists (Koupatsari) to water their flocks. The origin of this landscape, the flanks of which are gently rounded by a dense, shallow drainage system, is a direct consequence of its lithology, which consists of a soft, easily eroded flysch formation developed along a north-west–south-east trending zone. To the north and south it is bounded by igneous rocks of the Pindus ophiolite. The flysch consists Plate 1 The long, narrow watershed from the west (photo: P. Karkanas). 418 Nikos Efstratiou et al. of thin, bedded alternations of fine-grained siltstones and coarse-grained sandstones, with occasional scatters of small, isolated outcrops of Mesozoic limestones (Plate 2), which include light grey (10YR7/1)1 radiolarian chert nodules (Brunn 1952, 1956). Continuous, parallel stripes of detached vegetation mat, tongue-shaped lobes and deep scars are widespread along the slopes of the flysch (Plate 3). These typical periglacial features are produced by gelifluction (solifluction), frost creep or ground-ice slump due to seasonally frozen ground (Lewkowich 1988). The slope processes result in mass movement Plate 2 Hilly grassland with limestone outcrops on the top of the watershed. Plate 3 Detached vegetation mat due to frost-creep (photo: P. Karkanas). Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 419 of sediments saturated with water from higher to lower ground. Extensive talus slopes can be observed beneath most of the free faces of the limestone outcrops (Plate 4). They are most likely due to repeated freeze-thaw loosening of the rocks on the face by frost wedging. Climatic characteristics The climatic characteristics of the territory are transitional between Mediterranean and Continental ones, with a few Central European features (Polunin 1980; Ntafis et al. 1997). The winters are cold, with minimum temperatures well below 08C. The mean January and July temperatures of 758C and þ158C are typical of the highland zones of the north Pindus, while the summer drought does not exceed one to two months, during which downpours are very frequent. In general, precipitation is evenly distributed during throughout the year, with a mean annual rainfall of some 1,000–1,500mm. In the central massif of Mt Smolikas, where it is often of orographic origin (Bailey 1997a: 325), it is in the range of 2,000mm. Above 1,000m, snow may last several months, from December to the end of the spring (Polunin 1980). The present-day vegetation cover is conditioned by latitude, altitude, relief and substrate. Below 1,000–1,100m the supramediterranean, deciduous oak forest is very common, with various temperate elements. The oromediterranean bioclimatic stage composition, with Pinus nigra subs. pallasiana (black pine), predominates from 1,000m up to 1,700–1,800m. A low percentage of other species of Mediterranean pines, namely P. leucodermis and P. mugo, is also present. The northern exposures are covered by oromediterranean formations of Fagion hellenicum with F. sylvatica (beech) and, locally, Abies borisii-regis (fir). At higher altitudes, up to some 2,300m, the lower altimediterranean Plate 4 Samarina 5 test-trench at the foot of a highly shattered limestone outcrop: the blocks of soil on the side of the trench were systematically removed during the excavation (photo: N. Efstratiou). 420 Nikos Efstratiou et al. or subalpine vegetation is characterized by scattered P. heldreichii. The mountain peak cover (upper altimediterranean or alpine stage) is treeless, with alpine rocky meadows of Poaceae (Quézel and Barbéro 1985; Ntafis et al. 1997). Due to current and recent intense human activity, the present-day vegetation is mainly composed of grasslands and patchy woods of black pine or beech. The traditional economy of the area is based mainly on sheep herding and its vegetation sustained numerous flocks in summer pastures, which, during the last three decades of the nineteenth century, numbered ‘81,000 head of sheep’ (Wace and Thompson 1913: 159) at Samarina itself, ‘the highest of the Vlach villages’ (Hammond 1967: 266). Although almost nothing is known of the vegetation history of the area, and the effect of the human impact on the landscape, Wace and Thompson report that, along the eastern slopes of Mt Gorgul’u, around the end of the nineteenth century, the Samarina villagers ‘cut the trees recklessly and wastefully, and allowed sheep and goats to be pastured in the cleared areas, so that young pines had no chance of coming to maturity even in this hill country so well adapted for their rapid grow. So the destruction proceeded till the slope of Gorgul’u was bare’ (1913: 45). Soils and sediment The study of the area’s pedo-sedimentary history is of major importance for the understanding of the palaeoenvironmental changes that took place there through time in relation to the past climate. The typical soil beneath the watershed grassland slopes is immature, with a weakly developed profile. It undoubtedly derives from an anthropogenic disturbance of the vegetation cover, which has led to frequent churning, solifluction and creeping that have prevented any further development of the soil horizons. Beneath the root mat of the A horizon, the sediment consists of a light brown sandy loam. Nevertheless, remnants of deep soil profiles can be noticed in a few small depressions of the flat areas of the watershed. They are represented by typical chernozems (Mollisols or Phaeozems) with a well-developed A horizon, some 50cm thick (mollic epipedon), beneath the compact root mat of grasses. The mollic epipedon is a uniform, dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) clay with a granular structure. A gleyed horizon of bluish-greenish grey colour, characteristic of waterlogged conditions, is commonly formed beneath. Some reddishbrown prairie soils (Argiustolls or Luvic Phaeozems) are described for the open wood areas, recorded in the same zone at slightly lower altitudes (some 1,600m) (Institute of Forest Research 1990). The surveys Our archaeological surveys were aimed at producing evidence of hunter-gatherer survival strategies in these high-altitude environments. With a few exceptions (Toufexis 1994; Wilkie and Savina 1997), research in the area had rarely been undertaken previously, despite the fact that it is located between Epirus (Bailey 1997b; Runnels and van Andel 2003) and Thessaly (Runnels 1988; Runnels and van Andel 1993; Apostolika-Kyparissi Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 421 2000), areas known for their prehistoric record. The methodology of our research was formed around a predictive site-location model based on early Holocene sites in alpine Italy (Biagi and Nandris 1994; Biagi 1998). According to this model, high-altitude watersheds could have provided easy passageways from one region to another, as well as spots where the presence of almost perennial water sources could facilitate animal encounters and overnight stays. Fieldwork was conducted by a small team in four successive years from 2002 to 2005, each season lasting an average of two weeks (Efstratiou et al. 2003: 581). Our research took account of existing data from past archaeological (Wilkie and Savina 1997) and ethnographic work (Chang and Tourtellotte 1993). However, field walking constituted the main project tool, supplemented by small-scale excavations on selected spots and palaeoenvironmental studies. As is often the case in surveys (Cherry et al. 1991: 14; Runnels et al. in press), there is significant pressure to explore the selected area at a sufficient level of intensity, while making the best use of the time and resources allocated to the project. A total of ninety-one sites was discovered (see Fig. 2). Many (forty-six sites) are located in the surroundings of the village of Samarina, notably along the high, right-hand terraces of the Samarina River, at the piedmont of the Gorgul’u and on the elongated watershed Figure 2 Distribution map of the archaeological sites discovered during the 2002–5 surveys (dots). The square indicates the location of the modern village of Samarina (S). 422 Nikos Efstratiou et al. between the saddle of La Greklu, the easiest passage that links western Macedonia to Epirus, and the Mormide outcrop (Wace and Thompson 1913: Map I). The archaeological discoveries John Nandris (pers. comm. 1980) was the first to recognize the presence of Middle Palaeolithic artefacts from the terraces of the Samarina river, south of the village itself, in the autumn of 1980. Apart from these occasional discoveries, the archaeology of the area was restricted to the presence of a few classical sites, one of which is still being excavated (Drougou and Kallini 2003). The 2002–5 surveys have demonstrated that most of this highland zone was crossed or seasonally (ephemerally) settled during three main periods, the Middle Palaeolithic (Fig. 3), the very end of the Pleistocene and/or the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Neolithic. A few finds indicate that at some periods of the Late Palaeolithic the Mormide area was also sporadically visited (Fig. 4, nn. 1 and 2). The oldest archaeological ‘sites’ so far discovered are to be attributed to the Mousterian. In this area it is represented by several assemblages characterized by a very high Levalloisian component. These sites are particularly numerous on the western terraces of the Samarina river, just to the north of the village itself, where dense scatters of artefacts were discovered in 2005, as well as along the watershed between the La Greklu saddle and Mormide (Fig. 2). Although most of the artefacts from these sites were obtained from local light grey chert, a few of them were chipped from liver-coloured radiolarian chert, green quartz and transparent quartz. Most of the Middle Palaeolithic tools consist of unretouched flakes/ flakelets, sometimes with faceted chapeaux de gendarme butts, although Levallois cores, different types of side scrapers, denticulated specimens and Levallois flakes and blade-like flakes are also represented (Fig. 3). Apart from the Mousterian-Levalloisian assemblages, two typical Upper Palaeolithic tools have been collected from the surface of Samarina 16a (S6a). These two artefacts, a prismatic bladelet core and a double, long end scraper (Fig. 4, nn. 1 and 2), indicate that the watershed was traversed during warmer oscillations of the last Glacial period by people who carried exogenous chert pebbles, which were later manufactured at their highaltitude camps. A similar phenomenon is known for the very end of the Late Palaeolithic and/or the very beginning of the Holocene. Unfortunately, almost nothing is known of the deglaciation process of the Ligkos Mountains. Nevertheless, it is now clear that the last hunter-foragers of the Final Pleistocene and/or the first hunter-foragers of the Early Holocene frequented the high-altitude landscapes of the Pindus range in western Macedonia. Their passage, and most probably summer settling, is indicated by the occurrence of hypermicrobladelet and hypermicroflakelet cores of different types, obtained from different varieties of exogenous flint collected from several sites (Fig. 4, nn. 3–8), and also by a few fragmented bladelets and one isosceles trapeze, which might be attributable to the (Late) Mesolithic (Fig. 4, n. 9). After this period, the prehistoric presence in these mountains is attested by a relatively low number of sites, which have yielded flat-retouched or foliate tools. The most Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 423 Figure 3 Middle Palaeolithic tools: Levallois core (1), different types of scrapers (2–8 and 11), Levallois points and flakes (9, 10, 12 and 13). S12 (1), S27 (2), S29 (3), S7a (4), S6 (5 and 7), S13 (6), S43 (8), S40 (9), S7 (10 and 12), S14 (11), S27 (13). All the tools are made on local light grey chert, except for 3, which is of very dark green quartzite (1:2) (drawings: P. Biagi and G. Almerigogna). important of these are the finds from a former, at present almost dissected 1,783m-high glacial basin (Vasilitsa 7d: V7d) (Fig. 4, nn. 13–15), and along the middle altitude (1,230m) right-hand terraces of the Venetikos (Agios Athanasios1: AA1) from which typical Late 424 Nikos Efstratiou et al. Figure 4 Late Palaeolithic bladelet core (1) and double end scraper (2), Final Pleistocene/Early Holocene cores (3–7 and 8), Late Mesolithic (?) isosceles trapeze (9), Neolithic (?) transverse arrowhead (10), bladelet truncation (11), sickle bladelet (12), Late Neolithic flat retouched instruments (13–15) and greenstone chisel (16). S16a (1 and 2), S27 (3), S2 (4 and 8), S8 (5, 11 and 16), S7 (6), F3 (7), S5 (9), S11 (10), S23 (12), V7g (13–15). All the tools are made on different varieties of exotic chert (1:2) (drawings: P. Biagi and G. Almerigogna). Neolithic painted pottery and one greenstone axe have been recovered. This should indicate that, from this period onwards, people began to ascend the river courses descending from the Pindus down to the Grevena Plain, to settle seasonally and slowly reconquer the mountain zones that had been abandoned since the beginning of the Holocene. Sporadic Late Neolithic finds are also known from other sites, among which is Samarina 8, whose surface yielded a small greenstone chisel (Fig. 4, n. 16). Traces of Bronze Age frequenting are known from several localities, which have yielded typical ceramic potsherds, charcoal radiocarbon dates and structural remains, among which are hearths. Furthermore, still undated small stone cairns have been found along the top of a few high-altitude ridges. These discoveries may suggest that specialized pastoralism was already practised in this region in the Middle/Late Bronze Age, contrary to suggestions that this phenomenon is a recent one (Halstead 1987, 1991). During this period people were already crossing the western Macedonia-Epirus watershed, most probably to move their flocks seasonally from the winter lowland pastures of the Thessalian Plain to the high-altitude, summer ones, following movements comparable to those of more recent Vlach shepherds who still inhabit these zones (Cherry 1988: 6). Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 425 The excavations A number of test trenches were opened during our survey work, only three of which yielded a sufficient number of artefacts to sustain a small-scale excavation (Efstratiou et al. 2004: 623). The three excavated sites are those of Samarina 5 (S5) (Plate 4), Samarina 8 (S8) and Samarina 23 (S23). All are located along the highest, gently sloping pastures of the watershed altitudes, close to natural springs (Fig. 1 and Plate 1). Two major units were defined within the excavated areas. The uppermost, Unit 1, is a homogeneous brown sandy loam, with a weakly developed, fine granular structure found below a grass root mat. Its thickness varies between 30cm and 50cm. The second, Unit 2, below is characterized by structures that in plan form a well-developed polygonal pattern (Plate 5). These polygonal features have a diameter of 20–30cm and are bounded by fine fissures tapered downwards. They are found below the contact with Unit 1, and are associated with a diffuse hiatus in the field. In the case of Samarina 8, Unit 2 was incised by deep erosion canals, which yielded most of the (redeposited) archaeological finds. Apart from the stone tools and a few ceramic fragments, no other features indicative of human presence were found, with the single exception of a hearth, some 50cm in diameter, brought to light at Samarina 5. This is most probably of Bronze Age date because of the recovery of typical potsherds from the immediate vicinity of the structure. Detailed recording and analysis of the chipped stone artefacts found in excavation shows that they come from more than one period, with Middle Palaeolithic flints found together with tools most probably attributable to the end of the Pleistocene and/or the very beginning of the Holocene, and Bronze and Iron Age ceramic potsherds and (probably) flints. The mixed character of the excavated deposits is further confirmed by a series of radiocarbon dates obtained from charcoal samples from Samarina 8 (Table 1). Both data strongly suggest that the typologically earlier artefacts are redeposited. Plate 5 Plan view of the polygonal pattern found below the topsoil at site Samarina 8 (photo: N. Efstratiou). 426 Nikos Efstratiou et al. Table 1 Radiocarbon and calibrated dates on charcoal samples from Samarina 8 (S8); calibrations according to OxCal 3.9 (Stuiver et al. 1998) Tree species Lab number Pinus nigra Salix sp. Abies sp. Fagus sp. GrA-27089 GrA-27087 GrA-27092 GrA-27088 Uncal. BP date 1395þ/740 2680þ/740 2900þ/740 3220þ/740 Cal. BC/AD date (1 sigma) Cal. BC/AD date (2 sigmas) 610–660 885–810 1180–1020 1535–1445 570–690 920–790 1250–950 1610–1420 Soil micromorphology Soil micromorphological analysis was conducted on samples from both selected soil profiles and the test trenches. As far as the latter are concerned, under the microscope the groundmass of Unit 1 exhibits locally random striated and granostriated birefringence fabric. In most cases it is full of well-rounded, dark brown, clayey aggregates and some clay papules, suggesting disruption of a former soil horizon. Occasionally, small subangular fragments of charcoal were observed. All these properties are in agreement with the macroscopic evidence of slow mass movement at a sloping surface due to seasonal gelifluction and frost creep (Plate 6). However, the absence of any microscopic indication of cryoturbation indicates that the climate was not very cold, but most likely similar to that of the present. The groundmass of Unit 2 is siltier and less homogeneous than that of Unit 1 (Plate 7). It is also transected by a system of horizontal and vertical joints. Vertical silty structures are clearly visible in thin sections and represent infillings of the fissures of the polygonal structures. Rounded and angular aggregates of disrupted soil material from former soil horizons are embedded in a sandy silt matrix. Interestingly, a first generation of disrupted, dark brown silty clay fragments is embedded in a light yellowish brown clayey matrix that is also part of larger aggregates embedded in coarser matrix of lighter colour. Occasionally, the dark brown aggregates are impregnated with black amorphous organomineral material. Decayed, fine root filaments are clearly visible in all cases. Layered, dusty clay coatings are visible in voids that post-date the incorporation of the soil aggregates. The above features show that there were at least two generations of disruption of the soil profile. The first corresponds to a well-developed mollic epipedon, most likely formed under a grassland or open environment, possibly during an interstadial period. The second corresponds to a soil weakly developed (probably) during a milder interval inside a generically very cold period. The presence of very dusty clay coatings, which post-date the preceding features, implies a totally barren environment during the final stage of the development of the unit. Both the macroscopic and microscopic features of Unit 2 represent disruptions caused by ground ice formation. The polygonal structures result from frost desiccation, and the microscopic ones evidence downward translocation of relatively coarse material and frequent cryoturbation in frost-disturbed soils (Rose et al. 2004; Fedoroff and Goldberg Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 427 Plate 6 Microphotograph of the upper soil unit: note the rounded dark aggregates dispersed in the soil matrix (PPL, height of photo 7mm). Plate 7 Microphotograph of the lower soil unit showing a vertical infilling with silt, transecting from the top the thin section, and large amounts of angular and rounded dark soil aggregates mixed in the soil matrix (PPL, length of photo 2mm) (photo: P. Karkanas). 1982). It is suggested that these structures formed in a periglacial, but not necessarily permafrost, environment (Rose et al. 2004) since true ice-wedge polygons have not been observed. 428 Nikos Efstratiou et al. It is important to point out that the evidence suggests that during the warm periods of the Last Glacial the area was characterized by an open grassland, which was later often disrupted by frost action. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether a thick forest soil developed around the beginning of the Holocene. The disrupted soil aggregates found in Unit 1 most likely represent material resulting from the present, continuous gelifluction process. In any case, it is evident that both units are polyphased soils, which derive from frequent disturbance and churning of the soil profiles. Because of this it is not a surprise that the archaeological materials are found in mixed assemblages representing different periods. Charcoal analyses The charcoal identifications from Samarina 8 trench indicate the presence of the following taxa (Table 2): Abies sp. (fir), Fagus sp. (beech), Pinus nigra (black pine), Juniperus sp. (juniper), Fraxinus sp. (ash), Quercus type deciduous, Salix sp. (willow) and cf. Corylus avellana (hazel). One sample from the Samarina 5 (see Plate 4) hearth is composed of Abies sp. and Fagus sp. Identification has been restricted to the genus level for the majority of the taxa. However, since all are constituents of the present-day formations of the area, we can postulate that F. sylvatica is the beech species represented and A. borisii-regis the fir. Juniperus species are probably J. communis or J. foetidissima, both of which grow in high altitude areas and under cold climate. All the above species, together with black pines, are the dominant elements of the plant communities of the oromediterranenan bioclimatic stage in the area today. The remaining taxa (Salix, Corylus avellana and Fraxinus) probably represent riverine vegetation. Many willow species border the river banks in the area and they are very resistant to cold, usually forming gallery forests. The ash is probably Fraxinus angustifolia or F. excelsior, both growing in humid forests, levees and inundated terrains in the uplands of Greece. Hazel grows on humid soils in forested areas or along river valleys and gorges. Quercus cerris and Q. frainetto, the dominant oak species of the supramediterranean Quercion frainetto-cerris formations, characterize the regional middle altitudes and, in small numbers, also occur above 1,000m. Table 2 Plant taxa identified and their distribution in the samples (1, 2, etc.) from the excavation at Samarina 8 (S8) Samarina 8 Abies sp. (fir) cf. Corylus Avellana (hazel) Fagus sp. (beech) Fraxinus sp. (ash) Juniperus sp. (juniper) Pinus nigra (black pine) Quercus deciduous (oak) Salix sp. (willow) 1 2 3 4 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 429 These results are consistent with the present plant formation in the area over 1,000m asl and indicate the existence of beech woodlands and black pine forests in the past with an abundant component of fir. Moreover, they are coherent with and complementary to the Holocene vegetation history of upland north-western Greece which can be summarized as follows. Except for beech, all the above-mentioned taxa were already present in both archaeological contexts (Ntinou and Kotjabopoulou 2002; Ntinou 2002) and pollen records (Willis 1994a, 1994b) in the Pindus area by the end of the Pleistocene. Around 7500 BP, according to the pollen record for north-western Greece, black pine and fir forests were expanding, becoming the main vegetation cover of high altitudes and mountains in the area (Bottema 1974, 1982; Willis 1994b). Finally, around 3000 BP, the establishment of beech is detected and is considered a sign of anthropogenic impact upon the vegetation for areas that did not see an earlier expansion of the species (Bottema 1974, 1982; Willis 1994b). That is the case for northwestern Greece where the study area is located. The frequent presence of beech in the charcoal samples there speaks of a well-established tree cover, which, according to the pollen data, indicates a later Holocene date for its use by humans that visited the area. This suggestion is confirmed by radiocarbon dating of Fagus and Abies charcoal (Table 1). The earlier presence of these taxa in the area cannot be excluded, but archaeological, pollen, charcoal and radiocarbon evidence postulates an expansion of beech woodland during the Bronze Age and in relation to the use of upland areas for summer pastures. Discussion During colder periods of the Last Glacial the environment in the study area was very harsh, with low temperatures and seasonally frozen ground. Under these conditions it is reasonable to assume that human groups did not pay anything but sporadic and ephemeral visits to the watershed, and even then only during warmer climatic oscillations. Since most of the Late Palaeolithic is correlated with the cold, lower part of OIS3, and the glacial culmination of OIS2, the near absence of related archaeological material should be attributed to environmental/climatic factors. Based on the evidence provided by the soil micromorphology, we suggest that the present degraded condition of the landscape resembles the natural environment of the milder intervals of the last glacial period. During these warm intervals (at the beginning of OIS3 and during the interstadials of OIS5), the thick grassland would have provided a relatively good plant biomass for animal browsing. Although flysch is generally considered to be of poor grazing potential, it develops productive soils and hence offers an ideal habitat for herbivores in stable environments (Bailey et al. 1993). According to the available archaeological information we can assume a reappraisal and intensification of human activity after the end of the Neolithic. The second millennium cal. BC (Table 1) date from the excavated trench at Samarina 8 (S8) provides a strong indication for an early, seasonal exploitation of highland ecological niches in Greece, related to hunting and herding. Indeed, the presence of Bronze Age pottery sherds and 430 Nikos Efstratiou et al. lithics along the pasturelands of the flysch watershed emphasizes the recurring character of such visits, related, probably, to seasonal pastoral activities. Though still meagre, this seemingly persistent evidence of human activities along the Grevena watershed from Early Holocene times through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age may indicate that notions like ‘transhumance’ and ‘seasonality’ have long been embedded in the way of life of groups in this part of Europe (Braudel 1972). Repeated visits, probably by animal herders and their flocks to high-altitude summer pastures, would represent a constant pressure on the fragile mountain environments. Furthermore, grazing, the opening of pasturelands through the use of fire (Maggi and Nisbet 1991: 274) and soil loss due to inclination and landslide most probably altered other environmental gradients (such as soils), resulting in the successful expansion of tree types such as Fagus (Willis 1994a, 1994b). Slow mass movements, due to winter frost action, may have occurred, although not to the extent of totally disrupting the soil cover. Conclusion From the discussion above, it can be suggested that the combination of the geographical location of the watershed, a natural crossroad linking western Macedonia with Epirus and Thessaly, the availability of different raw materials for chipping artefacts (mainly radiolarite chert, but also quartz) and the potential richness of the available biomass, provided optimal conditions for the exploitation of the area by the Middle Palaeolithic hunters. Although the assemblages they left show at least two different patinas, the lack of stratigraphic evidence makes it difficult to ascertain if all are contemporaneous or if they pertain to different periods. Furthermore the chronological position of most of the Middle Palaeolithic complexes of Greece is still debated (Papagianni 1993; Matzanas 1998), which makes detailed attribution of the Grevena highland zone industries uncertain, although they might reasonably belong to the beginning of the OIS3. Compared with other assemblages of the same aspect, they show more similarities with the Mousterian-Levalloisian industries so far discovered in Epirus (Dakaris et al. 1964; Runnels and van Andel 2003), Thessaly (Runnels 1988) and Elis (Chavaillon et al. 1964, 1967, 1969), than with those of the Argolid (J. K. Kozłowski, pers. comm. 2005). Nevertheless, it is important to point out that the territory under study stands as an isolated landscape, the only example intensively exploited in the flysch zone. It is well known that most Palaeolithic sites in Greece are located on limestone terrain, but are absent from the flysch basins. Bailey et al. (1993) explained this dichotomy on the basis of differences in soil productivity and hence grazing potential for the animals, although only on a large scale. Runnels and van Andel (2003) stressed the importance of the karstic features (poljes) that provide an attractive environment with marshes, swamps and lakes in Epirus. They also believe that the repeated use of the same areas for long periods is a sign of a logistical behavioural pattern of land use. The discovery of numerous Middle Palaeolithic sites in the flysch landscapes of the Ligkos Mountains sheds new light on the issue of landscape exploitation during this period. Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 431 Quite a different pattern characterizes the Final Pleistocene/Early Holocene assemblages. Apart from being both numerically and typologically very poor, they are almost always made on flint from several exogenous, but as yet unknown, sources, although a small quantity of local, liver-coloured radiolarian chert was also employed. It is interesting to point out that all the artefacts of this age have been collected from stations that had already been settled during the Middle Palaeolithic. The rare occurrence of Mesolithic finds may indicate that the expansion of woodland on those upland areas was becoming an obstacle for the hunting activities of human groups seeking more diversified environments and that, as a result of this, their visits were sporadic. After this relatively long period, no traces of human presence have been recognized until the Late Neolithic. They seem to intensify during the Bronze Age, possibly as a consequence of the beginning of pastoralism in the area, an activity that may have led to the environmental degradation of this mountain territory. The fast expansion of beech woodland around 3000 BP could be a result of the use of high altitude pastures by the end of the Neolithic and during the Bronze Age. In this respect the anthracological and palaeopedological analyses are of fundamental importance in studying human impacts on the landscape during the most recent periods of prehistory. At present this territory is partially bare with sparse black pine and beech thickets. Although the landscape may once have been (almost) totally forested, it is difficult with the available charcoal data to provide a date for the opening of the canopy. It is equally difficult to demonstrate that the woodland cover was denser in the past. The available pedological data do not unequivocally confirm the existence of any forest soil during the Holocene, and cannot provide us with any explanation of the reasons and the period during which it began to degrade. Acknowledgements We want to express our deepest thanks to the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP) and the Grevena Prefecture, Greece, for their continuous and generous financial support. Thanks are also due to E. Alphas, M. Gouma, E. Prevedorou and M. Spataro who took part in the 2002–5 research. Nikos Efstratiou, Department of Archaeology, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki Paolo Biagi, Ca’Foscari University, Venice Paraskevi Elefanti, Royal Holloway University of London Panagiotis Karkanas, Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece Maria Ntinou, Department of Management of Cultural Heritage and Technologies, Ioannina University 432 Nikos Efstratiou et al. Note 1 Colours of the Munsell Soil Color Charts (2000). References Apostolika-Kyparissi, N. (ed.) 2000. Theopetra Cave: Twelve Years of Excavation and Research 1987–98. Proceedings of the international conference, Trikala, 6–7 November 1998. Bagolini, B. 1972. Primi risultati delle ricerche sugli insediamenti epipaleolitici del Colbricon (Dolomiti). Preistoria Alpina, 11: 211–35. Bagolini, B (ed.) 1983. Il popolamento delle Alpi in etu mesolitica. VIII–V millennio a.c. Preistoria Alpina, 19. Bagolini, B., Biagi, P., Broglio, A., Kozlowski, J. K., Kozlowski, S. K. and Lanzinger, M (eds) 1992. Human adaptations to the mountain environment in the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic. Preistoria Alpina, 21(1–2). Bailey, G. N. (ed.) 1997a. Klithi: Palaeolithic Settlement and Quaternary Landscapes in Northwest Greece, Vol. 1, Excavation and Intra-site Analysis at Klithi, Vol. 2, Klithi in its Local and Regional Setting. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge University. Bailey, G. N. 1997b. Klithi: a synthesis. In Klithi: Palaeolithic Settlement and Quaternary Landscapes in Northwest Greece, Vol. 2, Klithi in its Local and Regional Setting (ed. G. N. Bailey). Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge University, pp. 655–77. Bailey, G. N., King, G. and Sturdy, F. 1993. Active tectonics and land-use strategies: a Palaeolithic example from northwest Greece. Antiquity, 67(255): 292–312. Biagi, P. 1998. Prospezioni e ricerche su uno spartiacque delle Alpi meridionali: gli effetti dell’impatto antropico. Saguntum, 31: 117–24. Biagi, P. and Nandris, J. (eds) 1994. Highland Zone Exploitation in Southern Europe. Monografie di Natura Bresciana, 20. Brescia. Bottema, S. 1974. Late Quaternary vegetational history of northwest Greece. Thesis presented for PhD examination, University of Groningen. Bottema, S. 1982. Palynological investigations in Greece with special reference to pollen as an indicator of human activity. Palaeohistoria, 24: 257–89. Braudel, F. 1972. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. London: Collins; New York: Harper & Row. Brunn, J. H. 1952. Geological Map 1:50000: Pentalofos Sheet. Athens: Institute of Geological and Subsurface Research. Brunn, J. H. 1956. Contribution a l’étude géologique du Pinde septentrional et d’une partie de la Macédonie. Annales Ge´ologiques des Pays Helle´niques, 7: 1–358. Chang, C. and Tourtellote, P. 1993. Ethnoarchaeological survey of pastoral transhumance sites in the Grevena region, Greece. Journal of Field Archaeology, 20(3): 249–64. Chavaillon, N., Chavaillon, J. and Hours, F. 1964. Une Industries Paléolithiques du Péloponnèse: Le Moustérien de Vasilaki. Bulletin de Correspondence Helle´nique, 99: 616–22. Chavaillon, J., Chavaillon, N. and Hours, F. 1967. Industries Paléolithiques de l’Élide II: Région d’Amalias. Bulletin de Correspondence Helle´nique, 91: 151–201. Chavaillon, J., Chavaillon, N. and Hours, F. 1969. Industries Paléolithiques de l’Élide II: Région du Kastron. Bulletin de Correspondence Helle´nique, 93: 97–151. Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 433 Cherry, J. 1988. Pastoralism and the role of animals in the pre- and protohistoric economies of the Aegean. In Pastoral Economies in Classical Antiquity (ed. C. R. Whittaker). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press for Cambridge Philological Society, pp. 6–35. Cherry, J., Davis, J. and Matzourani, E. (eds) 1991. Landscape Archaeology as Long-Term History: Northern Keos in the Cycladic Islands from Earliest Settlement until Modern Times. Monumenta Archaeologica, 16. Los Angeles, CA: California Institute of Archaeology, University of California. Dakaris, S., Higgs, E. S. and Hey, R. W. 1964. The climate, environment, and industries of Stone Age Greece, Part I. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 30: 199–244. Drougou, S. and Kallini, Ch. 2003. Kastri Polyneriou, Grevena. To Archeologiko Ergo sti Makedonia ke Thraki, 17: 591–7. Efstratiou, N., Biagi, P., Elefanti, P. and Spataro, M. 2003. Proistorikes erevnes stin Pindo. I oreini periodi ton Grevenon. Ta prota apotelesmata. To Archeologiko Ergo sti Makedonia ke Thraki, 17: 581–91. Efstratiou, N., Biagi, P., Elefanti, P. and Ntinou, M. 2004. Proistorikes anaskafikes erevnes stin periohi tis Samarina, stin Pindo tou N. Grevenon. To Archeologiko Ergo sti Makedonia ke Thraki, 18: 623–31. Fedoroff, N. and Goldberg, P. 1982. Comparative micromorphology of two Late Pleistocene paleosols (in the Paris basin). Catena, 9: 227–51. Fleckinger, A. (ed.) 2003. Die Gletschermumie aus der Kupfezeit 2: Neue Forschungsergebnisse zum Mann aus dem Eis. Schriften des Sódtiroler Archdologiemuseums, 3. Bozen-Wien. Halstead, P. 1987. Man and other animals in later Greek prehistory. Annual of the British School at Athens, 82: 71–83. Halstead, P. 1991. Present to past in the Pindhos: diversification and specialisation in mountain economies. In Archeologia della Pastorizia nell’Europa Meridionale, Vol. 1 (eds R. Maggi, R. Nisbet and G. Barker). Bordighera, pp. 61–80. Hammond, N. G. L. 1967. Epirus. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Institute of Forest Research 1990. Soil Profile Description no 90-1466. Athens. Lewkowich, A. G. 1988. Slope processes. In Advances in Periglacial Geomorphology (ed. M. J. Clark). Chichester: Wiley. Maggi, R. and Nisbet, R. 1991. Prehistoric pastoralism in Liguria. In Archeologia della Pastorizia nell’Europa Meridionale, Vol. I (eds R. Maggi, R. Nisbet and G. Barker). Bordighera, pp. 265–96. Matzanas, C. 1998. Oi Palaiolithikes Theseis this Ileias. Archaeologiko Deltion, 53: 1–24. Meshveliani, T., Bar-Yosef, O. and Belfer-Cohen, A. 2004. The Upper Palaeolithic in Western Georgia. In The Early Upper Palaeolithic beyond Western Europe (eds P. J. Branthigam, S. Kuhn and K. W. Kerry). Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, pp. 129–43. Ntafis, S., Papastergiadou, E., Georgiou, K., Mpampalonas, D., Georgiadis, Th., Papageorgiou, M., Lazaridou, Th. and Tsiaousi, V. 1997. Odigia 92/43/EOK. To Ergo Oikotopon stin Ellada: Diktyo FYSI. Symvolaio arithmos B4-3200/84/756, Gen. Dieuthinsi Epitropi Europaikon Koinotiton, Mouseio Goulandri Fysikis Istorias – Elliniko Kentro Biotopon Ygrotopon: 932. Athens. Ntinou, M. 2002. El Paisaje en el Norte de Grecia desde el Tardiglaciar al Atlàntico: Formaciones Vegetales, Recursos y Usos. Oxford: BAR International Series, 1038. Ntinou, M. and Kotjabopoulou, E. 2002. Charcoal analysis at the Boila rockshelter: woodland expansion during the Late Glacial in Epirus, north-west Greece. In Charcoal Analysis: Methodological Approaches, Palaeoecological Results and Wood Uses (ed. S. Thiébault). Proceedings of the Second International Meeting of Anthracology, Paris, September 2000. Oxford: BAR International Series, 1063, pp. 79–86. 434 Nikos Efstratiou et al. Papagianni, D. 1993. The Middle Palaeolithic in Greece: the neglected evidence from open-air sites. Thesis submitted for MPhil, Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge. Polunin, O. 1980. Flowers of Greece and the Balkans: A Field Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Quézel, P. and Barbéro, M. 1985. Carte de la ve´ge´tation potentielle de la re´gion me´diterrane´enne. Paris: CNRS. Rose, J., Lee, J. A., Kemp, R. A. and Harding, P. A. 2000. Paleoclimate, sedimentation and soil development during the Last Glacial Stage (Devensian), Heathrow Airport, London, UK. Quaternary Science Reviews, 19: 827–47. Runnels, C. 1988. A Prehistoric survey of Thessaly: new light on the Greek Middle Palaeolithic. Journal of Field Archaeology, 15(3): 277–90. Runnels, C. and van Andel, Tj. 1993. The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic of Thessaly (Greece). Journal of Field Archaeology, 20(3): 699–728. Runnels, C. and van Andel, Tj. 2003. The Early Stone Age of the nomos of Preveza: landscape and settlement. In Landscape Archaeology in Southern Epirus, Greece I. Hesperia Supplement, 32 (eds T. Wiseman and K. Zachos). The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, pp. 47–134. Runnels, C., Panagopoulou, E., Murray, P., Tsartsidou, G., Allen, S., Mullen, K. and Tourloukis, E. in press. A Mesolithic landscape in Greece: testing a site-location in the Argolid at Kandia. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology. Schekenburger, G. (ed.) 2002. Attraverso le Alpi: Uomini – vie – scambi nell’ antichita. BadenWorttemberg: Archaeologisches Landesmuseum. Stuiver, M., Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Beck. J. W., Burr, G. S., Hughen, K. A., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., van der Plicht, J. and Spurk, M. 1998. INTCAL98 radiocarbon age calibration, 24000-0 cal BP. Radiocarbon, 40(3): 1041–83. Tillet, T. (ed.) 2000. Les Paleolpines: Hommage a Pierre Bintz. Geologie Alpine, Memoire H. S., 31. Grenoble: Universite Joseph Fourier. Toufexis, G. 1994. Anaskafi sto Neolithiko Oikosmo Kremastos tou N. Grevenon. To Archeologiko Ergo sti Makedonia ke Thraki, 8: 17–27. Valde-Nowak, P. (ed.) 1999. The Beginnings of Settlement in the Sudety Mountains. Krakow: Instytut Archeologii I Ethnologii PAN. Wace, A. J. B. and Thompson, M. S. 1913. The Nomads of the Balkans: An Account of Life and Customs among the Vlachs of the Northern Pindus. Cambridge: Biblo & Tannen. Wilkie, N. C. and Savina, M. E. 1997. The earliest farmers in Macedonia. Antiquity, 71(271): 201–7. Willis, K. J. 1994a. Altitudinal variation in the late Quaternary vegetational history of northwest Greece. Historical Biology, 9: 103–16. Willis, K. J. 1994b. The vegetational history of the Balkans. Quaternary Science Reviews, 13: 769–88. Nikos Efstratiou received his PhD from the Institute of Archaeology, University of London, in 1983 and is currently Associate Professor of Archaeology at the University of Thessaloniki. His research interests focus on the early periods of the Greek Neolithic and ethnoarchaeology. He has directed excavation and survey projects in various parts of Greece and conducted ethnoarchaeological fieldwork in Spain and Oman. Prehistoric exploitation of Grevena highland zones 435 Paolo Biagi received his PhD in Prehistoric archaeology from the Institute of Archaeology, University of London, in 1981. At present he is Full Professor of Palaeoethnology at Ca’ Foscari University, Venice. He has carried out research and excavations in northern Italy, Sardinia, Romania, Greece, Oman and Pakistan. His main interests focus on the prehistory of the Balkan Peninsula and the Neolithization of south-east Europe and on the prehistory of the two shores of the Arabian Sea and the Indus Valley. Paraskevi Elefanti is a post-doctoral research fellow at Royal Holloway College, University of London. She is a lithic specialist and has worked on various Palaeolithic projects in Greece and abroad. Panagiotis Karkanas is a geologist at the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of southern Greece. His work is focused on several aspects of geoarchaeology, in particular the micromorphology of sediments and soils at archaeological sites worldwide, including sites in Israel, South Africa, China and Europe. Maria Ntinou is an archaeologist with a specialization in anthracology. She carries out charcoal analysis at various prehistoric sites in Greece and currently works as Lecturer of Prehistoric Archaeology at the University of Ioannina.