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- - - - - --··- MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY Vol. 4, 1991 AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL FOR THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD A SERIES OF MIDDLE BRONZE AGE BOWLS WITH RAM'S-HEAD HANDLES FROM THE JORDAN VALLEY* Rachael Sparks The Middle Bronze Age in Palestine was a period of intensive re-urbanization and growing cultural complexity. Its beginning was marked by a number of important technological changes, including the introduction of the fast wheel and tin-bronze metallurgy; with these came developments in trade and social organization. 1 Local industries flourished during this period, especially those relating to the minor arts. Some of these, like workshops producing gypsum vessels, are usually seen as derivative from and incidental to similar industries in Egypt. 2 Others have been acknowledged as developing in the region, as is the case with bone and ivory inlays. 3 Less attention has been paid to the interaction between local crafts. Taking the example of a series of MB II bowls with ram 's-head handles, the following is an attempt to illustrate the potential of such an approach. The series appears in alabaster and wood, with at least two ceramic versions. Despite the differences in material, the type is immediately recognizable, characterized by four lug handles which project from the rim of the bowl in the shape of a ram's head. TYPOLOGY The form was first recognized at Jericho, where K. M. Kenyon devised two separate typologies for it, based on the material employed. The alabaster examples were divided according to base type, and then rim. 4 The remainder were put under the heading 'Small Wooden Bowls' and divided by body form, base type, the shape of the handle, and decoration. 5 One of the most notable features of the Ram 's-Head Bowl is that it appears in different media with th same range of variations. For example, flat, slightly rounded, and disc bases are seen in both wood and alabaster, as are three of the six decorative motives. 6 There are a few differences. Some of the wooden bowls are oval, while all the I would like to thank S. J. Bourke for his many useful suggestions on reading several drafts of this article, and Professor J. B. Hennessy for permission to publish the Pella material. Note the following additional abbreviations: IKG W. M. F. Petrie, Illahun, Kahun and Gurob (1891) Jericho I K. M. Kenyon, Excavations at Jericho I (1960) Jericho II K. M. Kenyon, Excavations at Jericho II (1965) KGH W. M. F. Petrie, Kahun, Gurob and Hawara (1890) PIJ1 A. W. McNicoll et al., Pella in Jordan 1 (1982) PIJ2 A. W. McNicoll et al., Pella in Jordan 2, Meditarch Suppl. 2 ( 1991) Sedment 1 W. M. F. Petrie-G. Brunton, Sedment 1 (1924) SMV W. M. F. Petrie, Stone and Metal Vases (1937) The illustrations are adapted from the following sources: MEDITARCH 4, 1991,45-54 Figs 1: 1,4-8;2:6fromJerichoifigs.155:5; 126: 4; 187: 11; 171: 15; 187: 17; 118: 16; 155:4. Fig. 1: 2 from J. B. Pritchard, The Bronze Age Cemetery at Gibe on ( 1963) pi. 17: 5. Fig. I: 3 from Sedment I pi. 41: 23. Fig. 2: 1, 3 from Jericho II figs. 100: 14; 172: 4. Fig. 2: 2 from J. Kaplan,' Atiqot 1, 1955, fig. 3: 7. Fig. 2: 4 from SMV pi. 32: 772. 1 W. G. Dever, Bib1A 50, 1987, 149-76. 2 For example, A. Dajani, AAJ 6-7, 1962-4, 68. 3 H. A. Liebowitz, IsrExplJ 27, 1977, 89-97. 4 Jericho I 296 Type E. s Jericho I 300-1 6 See catalogue at the end of this paper: flat bases, nos. 6 (wood), 44 (alabaster); round bases, nos. 5 (wood), 37 (alabaster); disc bases, nos. 4 (wood), SO (alabaster). Motif (i) nos. 5 (wood), 48 (alabaster); motif (iv) fig. 2: 3 (wood), 2: 1 (alabaster); motif (v) nos. 54 (wood), 46 (alabaster). 46 Rachael Sparks TYPE o 1 ' 3 2 4 5 TYPE 6 7 3 8 Fig. 1. Bowls with ram's-head handles Types 1 and 3 (1-8 =cat. nos. 20, 51, 55, 5, 44, 40, 46, 18). Scale: 1:4, except for 1 (1 :2) and 4 (1 :8). Bowls with Ram 's-head Handles from Jordan 47 alabaster examples have a round mouth (fig. 1: 1, 5). Concave disc or ring bases are seen only in alabaster, 7 and the uneven spacing of handles around the rim of at least two fragmentary wooden bowls prompted Kenyan to suggest they may have originally had five handles. 8 Overall, however, the similarities outweigh the differences and make separate typologies unnecessary; a fact that has been emphasized since the addition of further material outside of Jericho. A revised classification system is proposed to include all bowls of this form, irrespective of material. The most useful criteria seem to be the shape of the base, that of the rim, and the decoration (figs. 1-2). 9 TABLE 1: CLASSIFICATION OF BOWLS WITH RAM'S-HEAD HANDLES Type 2 3 Base Rim Treatmentt Decoration Fig. flat or slightly rounded A) decorated i) parallel lines iv) opposing groups of oblique lines vi) dotted circle 1:4 disc base concave disc or ring B) undecorated A) decorated B) undecorated A) decorated B) undecorated i) ii) iii) iv) parallel lines ladder pattern framed oblique lines opposing g!oups of oblique lines v) zigzag 1:3 2: 5, 7 2:6 2: 1, 3 1: 7 A complete catalogue of examples is given at the end of this paper. One important variation not included in this typology is the treatment of the handles. Among the reasons for this are the problem of shrinkage, distortion, and weathering of the wooden examples, and the lack of apparent chronological significance. 10 Nonetheless, it is worth noting that some bowls feature naturalistic handles (fig. 1: 1, 5, 6), while ·others are simplified (figs. 1: 3, 4; 2: 4). The two ceramic examples reproduce the profile of the handle, but make no attempt at sculptural detail (figs. 1: 2; 2: 2). Three examples feature a stylized treatment of the handles. A bowl from Pella (fig. 2: 7) shows a geometricized approach, with the curve of the horns reduced to a rectangular bar across the forehead. One example from Jericho (fig. 1: 7) is stylized in 7 Concave disc bases appear on three examples from Groups IT-IV (cat. nos. 8, 18, 40); a true ring base appears only in Group V (no. 46), and would seem to be a later development. R. Amiran, Ancient Pottery in the Holy Land (1970) 91, sees ring bases appearing as early as MB IIA and predominating during MB TIC (see also D. Cole, Shechem 1 [1984] 45-6). It is interesting that this trend does not appear to be reflected in the Ram 's-Head Bowl series, where disc bases would seem to be the norm. 9 These are the features most read ily identifiable from published material. Other potential variables present difficulties. Rim form-round or oval-is hard to determine on many of the wooden examples, owing to distortion. One bowl (fig. 1: 6) is unusual in having a simple rounded rim. Kenyon's use of body form-' fairly flat', 'shallow' , and 'deep'-is difficult to follow, as the categories are interchangeable, although the differences become notable at either extreme. 8 Jericho I 300 Types IA4 (Tomb 835) and IIA4 (Tomb 83). No complete example with five handles has been found; however, the ceramic bowl from Tel Aviv, cat. no . 52, has only two handles . 1 For example, naturalistic versions occur in Groups II-V (cat. nos. 9, 20, 40, 44). ° 48 Rachael Sparks TYPE 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fig. 2. Bowls with ram's-head handles Type 2 (1-5 =cat. nos. 9, 52, 36, 56, 50), and rim fragments (6-7 =cat. nos. 24, 49). Scale: 1: 4, except for 4-5 (1 :3). Bowls with Ram 's -head Handles from Jordan 49 a different way, with detail reduced to two incised lines down the top of each handle . Another bowl from Jericho (fig. 1: 8) follows the basic features of the type, but the handles bear little resemblance to rams' heads, being rounded with two horizontal incisions across their outer faces. This may be a misunderstanding of the more common form, 11 or an attempt to reinterpret it. CONTEXT Specialized treatment of ram 's-head bowls is evident in a few cases from Jericho where the burials were undisturbed. 12 J1 Body A, placed beneath hands on abdomen. H6 Body A, on left side of abdomen. H18 Body L, on left side of pelvis. The significance of this is unclear. It may imply no more than the aesthetic, sentimental, or intrinsic value of the bowls themselves. It is worth noting in this context that all three bowls were made of alabaster, generally regarded as a luxury material in Palestine during this period. 13 DISTRIBUTION (TABLE 2) Alabaster ram 's-head bowls have been reported from three sites in Palestine-Jericho, Beth Shan, and Pella. When the sample is expanded to include related forms in wood and pottery, Gibeon and Tel Aviv are the only additions. The relative proximity of the sites suggests a localization of the type, while the concentration of examples at Jericho makes it the most likely source of manufacture or distribution. 14 Only four examples have been published from Egypt. One is in alabaster, but unprovenanced (fig. 2: 4; cat. no. 56). The remaining three are made of wood, and occur at Kahun arid Sedment (nos. 53-5). On present evidence, it seems likely that they are Palestinian imports. 15 TABLE 2: BOWLS WITH RAM'S-HEAD HANDLES IN PALESTINE AND EGYPT Site Jericho Beth Shan Pella Gibe on Tel Aviv Kahun Sedment Unprovenanced Total Alabaster 8 1 2 Ceramic 2 1 12 11 Jericho I 402. 12 Jericho I 427; Jericho II 576. 13 Thus Dever art. cit. (n. 1) 163 . See also below n. 44. 14 Wood 39 Although conditions for the preservation of wood seem to have been unusually favourable (seeS. Dorrel in : Jericho II Appendix L 704-7), even without the wooden examples Jericho has a majority. A. Clamer in: P. Parr (ed.), Jericho: Problems of Interpretation and Publication (forthcoming) proposes Jericho as a manufacturing centre for alabaster vessels in this period. No direct evidence for this has come to light. I. Ben-Dor, QDAP 11, 1945, 97-8, provides such for Beth Shan, in the form of unfinished 42 2 Total 47 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 56 juglets from Stratum X. It is likely that more than one centre of production was operating in the Middle Bronze Age (see Dajani art. [n. 3] 69). 15 For example, the decoration on cat. no. 54, from Kahun, is paralleled on an alabaster example from Jericho (fig. 1: 7). The decoration on the bowl from Sedment (fig. 1: 3) is as yet unparalleled, but is commonly found on MB II Palestinian bone inlays, e.g. Jericho I fig. 145: 2-3 (see Liebowitz art. cit. [n.3] fig. I: 16, with pp. 90-1 for futher references). It is also found on the rims of alabaster flat -based alabastra, the majority of which are found in the north Jordan valley, e.g. PIJI pi. 114: 13; PIJ2 pi. 61 : 2. 50 Rachael Sparks It is interesting to note that the two examples from Pella use the same decorative motif (fig. 2: 5, 7). This motif is not seen elsewhere, and may be a local peculiarity. 16 CHRONOLOGY The division of the Middle Bronze Age in Palestine into distinct chronological phases has been the subject of much recent debate. 17 Whatever the terminology used, 18 it is generally agreed that there are two major cultural distinctions within this period-W. Dever's MB I, covering the early 2nd millennium, and his MB 11-III, from sometime in the 18th century to the beginning of the Late Bronze Age. 19 Most recently, A. Kempinski and P. Bienkowski have argued for the use of 'Early' and 'Late' MB 11 for this latter period, as there are no uniform grounds for dividing the pottery for MB 11 and Ill throughout Palestine. 20 I have adopted a modified version of Dever's terminology as follows: MB I= c.2000-1800, MB 11 (subdivided into 'Early' and 'Late')= c. 1800-1550. 160 140 I 20 15 t5 / 120 . 100 80 10 + z 5 -+ TOMB GROUPS - - A labaster / wooden examples - - - Tombs with Ram 's - Head Bowls TOMB Fig. 4. Total number of interments at MB 11 Jericho. Fig. 3. Frequency of Ram's-Head Bowls at Jericho. 16 17 Motif (iii) may be related, see fig. 2: 6. J. D. Seger, Erlsr 12, 1975,43-5: W. G. Dever in : F. M . Cross et al. (eds), Magna1ia Dei : the Mighty Acts of God (1975) 3-38; P. Gerstenb1ith, The Levant at the Beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (1983); A. Kempinski, Syrien und Pallistina (Kanaan) in der letzten Phase der Mittelbronze IIB -Zeit (1650-1570 v. Chr.) (1983); P. Bienkowski, Levant 21, 1989, 169-79. GROU PS 18 The mlijor schools of thought are those of Albright (MB ITA-C), Kenyan (MB I-ll) and Dever (MB 1-III), as summarized by Bienkowski art. cit. 169 and Dever art. cit. 149; see also P. Gerstenblith, BASOR 237, 1980, 63-84. 19 2 ° Gerstenblith art. cit. 65; Dever art. cit. Kempinski op. cit., Bienkowski art. cit.; cf. Seger art. cit., Dever art. cit., and Cole op. cit (n . 7), who argue in favour of a division between MB 11 and MB Ill. Bowls with Ram 's-head Handles from Jordan 51 The absolute chronology is that proposed by Dever, 21 following the dates for the Xllth to XVth Dynasties as suggested by K. A. Kitchen. 22 As the majority of the material is derived from Jericho, Kenyon's tomb groupings have been used as a basis for detecting developing trends in ram 's-head bowls. 23 These provide us with a useful sequence of MB 11 'Early' and 'Late' tombs in a continuum. 24 Bowls with ram's-head handles are found in tombs from Groups II-V, 25 with the exception of one example from Tomb J3, which Kenyon attributes to Group I. A closer study of the contents of J3, however, suggests that it should be placed a little laterprobably somewhere in Group 11. Thus, E. Porada attributes the cylinder seal from the burial to D. Collon 's Aleppo group which dates to the second half of the 18th century, 26 and the shaft hole axe is a form common down to the end of MB 11. 27 Kenyon 's own parallels for the weaponry, in Tell el-Far'ah Tomb A, were dated by the excavator, R. de Vaux, to the 18th and 17th centuries. 28 It is clear that the type is at its most popular in Groups II and Ill, especially the latter, with a noticeable decline in numbers towards the end of MB II (see fig. 3). This is not matched by the total number of interments, which increase in Group IV and V (fig. 4). 29 The remaining material from Palestine does nothing to contradict this picture, although some of the contexts are imprecise. The alabaster bowl from Beth Shan, for example, is described as coming from 'the upper debris of the trench of the Northern slope'. 3 Cat. no. 49, from Pella, comes from Area IIIF. 31 The associated pottery belongs to early MB 11, or East Cut Phase VII/VIII. The ceramic examples from the Tel Aviv harbour cemetery 32 and from Gibeon belong to the later part of MB 11. 33 The latest bowl in our sequence seems to be cat. no. 50, from Tomb 20 at Pella; this has been dated to between the end of MB 11, 34 and the beginning .of LB I. 35 It is difficult to establish the chronological relationship of the Palestinian and Egyptian material. W. M. F. Petrie dated the two examples from Kahun to the Xllth ° 21 Dever art. cit. (n . 1) 149; see also id. in : J. Tubb (ed.), Palestine.in the Bronze and Iron Ages (1985) 82 n. 10, and Gerstenblith op.cit. 104 Table 8 for some comparative absolute chronologies. 22 K. A. Kitchen in : P. Astriim, High, Middle or Low? (1987) 37- 55 . 28 Jericho II 169; these figures are based on a skull count. 30 G. M. Fitzgerald, Beth Shan Excavations 1921-3 (1931) 43. 31 23 As based on the groupings published in Jericho I-II, including Kenyan's revisions in Jericho II 173-6, and successfully used by 0. Tufnell, Studies in Scarab Seals II (1984) and W. A. Ward , AJA 91, 1987,507-32. 24 Bienkowski art. cit. (n. 17) 169; Ward art. cit. 518-21. a Group II is usually seen as belonging to MB II, but note the synchronisms of Tufnell op. cit. and Ward art. cit. 518-9,527, which would place the scarabs in Group II contemporaneous with the later part of the XIIth Dynasty. Kirkbride, in Jericho II 583-4, equates Group V with the early XVth Dynasty, while Ward art. cit. 527, sees it as contemporary with the late XVth. 26 E. Porada in : K. M. Kenyan-T. Holland, Excavations at Jericho V (1983) Appendix G 744. 27 W. Dever, BASOR 217, 1975, 30. Jericho I 313 . 29 A. W. McNicoll et al., AAJ 29, 1985, 198. 32 J. Kaplan,' Atiqot 1, 1955, 6-7, bases her dating of the cemetery on ceramic and other finds. Tufnell op. cit. (n. 23) 200 Table XXXIV, seems to place the scarabs very early in her sequence (i .e., pre-J ericho Group II), but those from Tomb 11 could allow for a later dating. Thus Type 1E3 is seen in Jericho Groups III-IV, Type 3B3b in Groups II-V, and Type 3Di occurs throughout MB II (ibid. 116, 119, 121). 33 J. B. Pritchard, The Bronze Age Cemetery at Gibeon (1963) 19, gives some parallels forthe pottery in Tomb 12 with Jericho Groups III-V. 34 S. J . Bourke in: J . B. Hennessy-D. Homes-Fredericq, The Archaeology of Jordan II 2 (1989) 414-25. 35 PIJl 48-9. 52 Rachael Sparks Dynasty, 36 but no provenances were given, and as B. J. Kemp and R. S. Merrillees have shown, extreme caution must be exercised when using Petrie 's dates for the site. 37 The wooden bowl from Sedment, Tomb 1288, is dated by the excavators to the XVIth Dynasty, which should place it in the later part of MB 11. 38 The unprovenanced bowl is said to be of XVIIIth Dynasty date. 39 In the light of more securely dated material from Palestine, this may be placed at the very beginning of the New Kingdom. The chronological range of the type is therefore from early in MB 11 to perhaps the very beginning ofLB I, or c.1800-1550. INTERACTION BETWEEN MEDIA Bowls with ram 's-head handles are just one example of interaction between craftsmen working with different materials. 40 Borrowings of this kind may well have been facilitated by similarities in manufacturing techniques and tools. 41 Wood and alabaster appear early in the sequence at Jericho; on present evidence, it is difficult to determine in which material the type originated. An alabaster prototype seems possible; one example from Tomb B35 shows traces of white paint, suggesting that it may have been intended to imitate alabaster. 42 In Egypt, stone vessels were commonly copied in wood, and often painted to increase the resemblance. 43 The number of wooden bowls with ram 's-head handles also outnumbers alabaster examples by nearly ten to one. This is in keeping with the scarcity of alabaster vessels generally in relation to other containers, 44 and suggests that the wooden versions may be an attempt to gain the lower end of a luxury market. 45 CONCLUSIONS Bowls with ram 's-head handles form a distinct class of vessel within the repertoire of Palestinian craftsmen during the Middle Bronze Age. Although rare in general, these bowls were popular enough to generate imitations across different media-including wood, alabaster, and pottery. Production would seem to be localized in the Jordan 36 By implication only; one is illustrated on a plate labelled 'XII Dynasty' (KGH plate 8), and the other compared to it (IKG 11). Yet in KGH 26, he uses an XVIIIth-Dynasty parallel to prove the piece is not Roman, while in SMV 12 he clearly considers it earlier than the XVIIIth Dynasty. 37 B. J. Kemp-R. S. Merrillees, Minoan Pottery in Second Millennium Egypt (1980) 80, 86-9. See also P. Astrom, SCE IV: IB (1972) 212-3, for further references. Atchana in the Hatay 1937-49 (1955) pl. 81:7, in steatite. 41 For example, the chisel: see Ben-Dor art. cit. (n. 14) pl. 23, for chisel marks on the interior of a locally made gypsum vessel. It was not possible to analyse the alabaster bowls; should they prove to be made of gypsum, an even stronger case for local manufacture may be argued; see Ben-Dor art. cit. 94-6. 42 Jericho I fig. 156: 3; cat. no. 22. 43 For example, W. C. Hayes, The Sceptre of Egypt II (1959) 154,228 fig. 136. 3S Sedment I pl. 41. 43 39 SMV 12. 44 40 The flat, lug-handled pyxis is another example. It is found on a number of sites in the Levant and Cyprus, in alabaster, steatite, pottery, ivory, wood, and faiencesee the discussions by E. Peltenberg in: V. Karageorghis, Excavations at Kition I (1974) 110, and M. Dothan, Excavations at Tell Qasile II (1985) 12-13. To their lists of parallels we can add the following: R. W. Hamilton, QDAP 4, 1935, 44 no. 272, in clay; J. Garstang, Burial Customs (1907) fig. 109, in wood; A. Rowe, The Four Canaanite Temples at Beth Shan (1940) in ivory; C. L. Woolley, Alalakh: An account of the Excavations at Tell Jericho I fig. 156: 3; cat. no. 22. For example, Tomb B35 held over 60 ceramic vessels, over 30 wooden containers, and only 3 complete and 3 fragmentary alabaster vessels. The Ram 's-Head Bowl in particular would seem to be of limited popularity overall, as out of the 44 tombs excavated by Kenyon for MB II, the type appears in only 17. Of these, 10 tombs contained wooden versions only; 3 contained alabaster examples, and 4 tombs contained examples of both. 4 s This may not be true of the ceramic versions, which, by their scarcity and relatively late appearance, would seem to be curiosities. Bowls with Ram 's-head Handles from Jordan 53 Valley, with Jericho as the most likely centre of manufacture, based on distribution patterns, and the extent of variation within a restricted chronological range, from early in MB 11 to the very beginning of the Late Bronze Age. The class as a whole provides yet another instance of the quality and increasing independence of Middle Bronze Age craft industry in Palestine. APPENDIX: CATALOGUE OF BOWLS WITH RAM'S-HEAD HANDLES No. Site Jericho 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Provenance Tomb A34 B48 B50 046 J3 J54 M11 P23 B3 B35 Group Type 2B 11 2Aiii -Aiv 2Aiv 1Ai 1Aiv 2B 3A2Aiv 2B -B 1Aiv 2Aiv 2B 2Aiv III 2B -B 3B 1B Material Wood Alabaster Wood Alabaster Wood 2Aiv -Aiii -Aiv -B 2B B51 119 P19 -Ai 2Aiv 1B Alabaster Publication Jericho I fig. 133: 3 Jericho 11 fig. 130: 1 fig. 150:3 fig. 150: 2 Jericho I fig. 126:4 fig. 126: 3 fig. 126:5 313 reg. no. 21 Jericho 11 fig. 100: 14 fig. 130: 6 fig. 130: 7 fig. 130: 3 fig. 130: 2 fig. 130: 9 Jericho I fig. 163: 3 fig. 163: 1 fig. 163:2 fig. 118: 16 fig. 156: 4 fig. 155: 5 fig. 155: 1 fig. 156: 3 fig. 156:5 fig. 155: 4 fig. 155: 6 fig. 156: 1 fig. 156: 6 fig. 156: 7 fig. 155: 2 387 reg . no. 118 387 reg. no. 276 387 reg. no. 336 387 reg. no. 340 387 reg. no. 434 Jericho 11 fig. 172: 1 fig. 172: 4 fig. 179: 11 54 Rachael Sparks No. Site 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Jericho 49 50 51 Pella 52 53 54 55 56 Provenance Jl Group Type IV 2B Wood 3B Alabaster Wood Tower area Trench N slope 2Aiv 1B 2Aiv 3Av 2B 2Ai Gibeon Area IIIF 1.22 Area XI, Tomb 20 Tomb12 -Aii 2Aii lB Tel Aviv Kahun Harbour Cem. T 11 no prov. given 2B G1 H5 H18 Beth Shan Sedment Tomb 1288 unprovenanced V Material Alabaster Wood Alabaster Ceramic Wood -Av lA vi 2B Alabaster Publication Jericho I fig. 184: 1 fig. 184: 7 fig. 171: 15 435 cat. no. 18 435 cat. no. 69 fig. 192: 1 fig. 187: 11 fig. 192:4 fig. 187: 17 AAALiv 21, 1934, pl. 17: 8 Fitzgerald, Beth Shan 1921-23 (1931) pl. 40: 3 PIJ2 pl. 31: 1 unpublished; reg. no. 52281 Pritchard, Bronze Age Cemetry at Gibeon (1963) pl. 17:5 Kaplan,' Atiqot 1, 1955, fig. 3: 7 IKG p. 11 KGH pl. 8: 3 Sedment I pl. 41: 23 SMV pl. 32: 772